V 


CM  DPf    T',  Dl,  I  V'AK 


VIEW 


SOUTH   AMERICA 


AND 


MEXICO, 


COMPRISING 

THEIR  HISTORY,    THE  POLITICAL  CONDITION,  GEOGRAPHY,  AGRICUL- 
TURE,   COMMERCE,    &C.    OF  THE  REPUBLICS  OF  MEXICO,  GUATA- 
MALA,  COLOMBIA,    PERU,  THE  UNITED  PROVINCES  OF  SOUTH 
AMERICA  AND  CHILE,  WITH  A  COMPLETE  HISTORY  OF 
THE  REVOLUTION,  IN  EACH  OF  THESE 

INDEPENDENT  STATES. 


BY  A  CITIZEN  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


TWO  VOLUMES  IJY 
VOL.  I. 


NEW-  YORK  : 

PUBLISHED  BY  H.  HUNTINGTON,  JR. 

1826. 


T\u 


District  of  Connecticut,  ss. 

BE  IT  REMEMBERED,  That  on  the  twenty 
T        C      second  day  of  October,  in  the  fiftieth  year  of  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  United  States  of  America,  H.  HUNT- 
INGTON,  Jr.  of  the  said  district,  has  deposited  in  this 
office  the  title  of  a  Book,  the  right  whereof  he  claims  as  proprietor, 
in  the  words   following1,  to  wit :    "  A  view  of  South  America  and 
Mexico,  comprising  their  History,  the  Political  condition,  Geogra- 
phy, Agriculture,  Commerce,  &c.  of  the  Republics  of  Mexico,  Gua- 
tamala,  Colombia,  Peru,  the  United  Provinces  of  South  America 
and  Chile,  with  a  complete  History  of  the  Revolution  in  each  of 
these  Independent  States. — By  a  Citizen  of  the  United  States. — Two 
volumes  in  one.     Vol.  I." 

In  conformity  to  the  act  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  enti- 
tled, "  An  act  for  the  encouragement  of  learning,  by  securing  the 
copies  of  Maps,  Charts  and  Books,  to  the  Authors  and  Proprietors  of 
such  copies,  during  the  times  therein  mentioned." 

CHARLES  A.  INGERSOLL, 

Clerk  of  the  district  of  Connecticut. 
A  true  copy  of  Record,  examined  and  sealed  by  me, 
CHARLES  A.  INGERSOLL, 

Clerk  of  the  district  of  Connectictif. 


-3  tf  I  S^  4 


PREFACE. 

To  give  some  account  of  the  revolution  of  the  late  Spanish  Colo* 
nies  in  South  America ;  a  revolution  which  has  terminated  so  glori- 
ously, and  is.t  characterized  by  so  many  striking  and  interesting 
events,  is  the  object  of  this  work.  The  author,  or  compiler,  is  aware 
that  the  time  has  not  yet  arrived,  for  composing  a  complete  history  of 
these  events  ;  nor  is  the  United  States  the  place  for  such  a  work  to  be 
written.  It  is  intended  only  as  a  popular  sketch  or  outline,  present- 
ing in  one  view  all  that  is  most  valuable  ana  interesting  in  the  nume- 
rous publications  on  this  subject.  The  lively  interest  which  the  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States  justly  feel  in  a  revolution,  having  so  impor- 
tant an  influence  on  the  cause  of  freedom,  and  on  the  destinies  of  the 
new  world  ;  which  has  brought  into  existence  six  independeet  na- 
tions, on  the  same  continent,  some  of  them  their  neighbours,  seemed 
to  require  a  work,  presenting,  in  a  cheap  and  popular  form,  a  gene- 
ral and  connected  view  of  these  important  events.  We  are  not 
aware  that  any  similar  work  has  appeared,  although  there  have  been 
numerous  valuable  publications,  affording  much  information,  concern- 
ing certain  periods  of  the  revolution.  To  render  a  work  of  this  de- 
scription more  complete  and  valuable,  it  was  thought  best  to  connect 
with  it,  a  compendium  of  the  history  and  condition  of  Spanish  Ame* 
rica,  previous  to  the  revolution,  and  a  geographical  and  political 
view  of  the  present  condition  of  the  new  republics.  A  knowledge  of 
the  geography  of  the  country,  and  vin  some  measure  its  early  history, 
is  requisite  to  a  correct  understanding  of  the  events  of  the  revolution. 
To  facilitate  this  knowledge,  the  book  is  'accompanied  with  two 
maps,  one  of  Mexico  and  one  of  South  America,  compiled  from  the 
latest  and  best  authorities,  and  believed  to  be  the  most  correct  maps 
ever  published  on  these  countries. 

In  the  compilation,  we  have  consulted  and  made  free  use,  as  we 
had  occasion,  of  most  of  the  approved  works  in  the  English  lan- 
guage relating  to  the  subject.  Among  the  number,  are  Robertson's 
America,  the  Edinburgh  Encyclopdeia,  Morse's  Geography,  Outline 
of  the  Revolution,  Fune's  Sketch  of  the  Revolution  in  the  United 
Provinces  of  South  America,  Poinsett's  Notes  on  Mexico,  Pazo's 
Letters  on  South  America,  Hall's  Travels  in  Colombia,  Cochrane's 


IV  BREFACE. 

Colombia,  Hall's  Journal  and  History  of  events  in  Peru  and  Chile.. 
Bland's  and  Poinsett's  Statistical  Reports,  Niles'  Weekly  Register, 
and  the  North  American  Review.  The  latter  part  of  the  history  in 
The  several  states,  we  have  derived  from  public  documents  transmitted 
f.o  Congress,  and  from  the  public  journals  and  periodical  publications 
ef  the  day. 

These  materials  have  been  examined  with  the  most  laborious  re<- 
search  ;  and  whoever  considers  the  intrinsic  difficulties  of  the  under- 
taking— the  obscurity  in  which  every  thing,  relating  to  Spanish  Ame- 
rica has  been  involved — the  passions  excited  by  recent  events,  and 
the  misrepresentations  they  have  occasioned — the  confusion  of  cer- 
tain periods  of  the  revolution,  and  the  fact,  that  most  of  our  informa- 
tion is  necessarily  derived  through  a  different  language,  will  not  ex- 
pect perfect  accuracy,  or  criticise  with  severity,  any  errors  or  defects, 
with  which  the  work  may  justly  be  chargeable.  It  will  also  be  re- 
membered, that  it  is  intended  merely  to  present  a  popular  view  of  the 
subject,  making  no  pretensions  to  literary  merit.  Such  as  it  is,  how- 
ever, it  is  offered  to  the  'public,  with  the  full  persuasion,  that  no  Ame- 
lican  will  rise  from  its  perusal,  without  feeling  a  keener  detestation  of 
tyranny,  and  a  more  lively  sense  of  the  inestimable  blessings  of  free- 
dom and  peace ;  the  happy  fruits  of  our  republican  institutions,  in 
which  he  participates,  in  common  with  his  fellow  citizens. 

November,  1825. 


SKETCH 

OF  THE  HISTORY  OF 

SPANISH  AMERICA, 

TO  THE  REVOLUTION. 
CHAPTER  I. 


Effects  of  the  discovery  of  America — Columbus''  first  voyage  and 
discoveries — grant  of  the  Pope — second  voyage — -fate  of  the 
first  colony — rising  of  the  natives — they  are  subdued  and  com- 
pelled to  pay  tribute — convicts  transported  to  the  colony — 
third  voyage  of  Columbus  in  which  he  discovers  the  continent 
— origin  of  the  reparlimientos — voyage  of  Jllonzo  de  Ojeda 
and  Americus  Vespucius — -fourth  voyage  of  Columbus — set- 
tlement on  the  gulf  of  Darien — Valasco  Balboa  discovers  the 
Pacific  Ocean — voyage  of  Juan  de  Solois — conquest  of  Cuba 
— colony  planted — Cuinana,  Yucutan,  and  Mexico  discovered. 

THE  discovery  of  America,  forms  a  new  and  most 
conspicuous  era  in  the  annals  of -the  world  ;  and  probably  no 
other  event  has  had  greater  influence  on  the  destinies  of  the 
human  race.  Its  immediate  effects  were,  to  excite  a  spirit  of 
discovery,  of  enterprise  and  commercial  cupidity,  which  not 
only  gave  a  new  direction,  but  a  more  vigorous  impulse,  to 
speculative  and  commercial  operations,  and  by  extending  the 
bounds  and  magnifying  the  objects  of  navigation,  a  degree  of 
interest  and  importance  was  conferred  on  that  pursuit,  which 
it  had  never  before  possessed.  To  these  effects,  succeeded 
the  planting  of  colonies,  which  gradually  gave  a  new  aspect 
to  the  commerce  of  Europe,  engrafted  novel  principles  into 
the  laws  of  nations,  and  in  no  small  degree  influenced  the 
politics  of  almost  every  state  in  Europe  ;  as  for  a  long  pe- 
riod most  of  the  con-entions  and  wars  among  the  principal 
powers  of  the  old  wond,  arose  from  conflicting  claims  and  iu- 
1* 


6  SKETCH    OF   THE    HISTOltk 

terests  in  the  new.  New  relations  were  created,  between  the 
parent  state  and  its  colonies,  and  between  the  latter  and  other 
powers,  the  last  of  which,  were  a  source  of  constant  jealousy, 
and  often  disturbed  the  peace  of  nations. 

That  the  discovery  and  colonizing  of  a  new  world,  several 
times  as  large  as  the  continent  of  Europe,  would  produce  an 
important  change  in  the  commercial  and  political  relations  of 
the  maritime  powers  of  that  continent,  must  have  been  fore- 
seen at  the  time  ;  but  that  it  should  have  had  an  important 
moral  influence  on  the  character  of  mankind,  and  have  beeu 
the  means  of  securing  their  rights,  establishing  their  liberties, 
and  exalting  their  destinies,  no  one  could  have  anticipated. 
On  the  contrary,  it  must  have  been  supposed,  that  the  estab- 
lishment of  distant  colonies,  dependant  on  the  parent  state, 
nursed  by  its  care,  protected  by  its  arms,  and  entirely  subject 
to  its  power,  would  have  tended  to  colonial  oppression  ;  which 
by  strengthening  the  power  of  the  sovereign,  would  re-act 
upon  the  parent  state,  and  thus  tend  to  the  oppression  of  both, 
VVhatevermay  have  been  the  case,  with  others,  this  was  un- 
doubtedly true  of  the  Spanish  Colonies,  down  to  the  period  of 
the  late  revolution.  Their  degradation  and  oppression  aliena- 
ted them  from  the  parent  country,  and  prepared  their  minds  to 
embrace  the  first  opportunity  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  a  dis- 
tant and  foreign  power,  which  instead  of  conducting  towards 
them,  like  an  affectionate  mother,  treated  them  with  the 
jealousy,  selfishness,  and  cruelty  of  an  unfeeling  step-darne. 

The  English  colonists  in  North  America,  consisting  of  the 
persecuted  at  home,  brought  with  them,  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent, the  elements  of  freedom  ;  and  many  of  the  colonies  ob- 
tained charters  securing  the  essential  rights  of  self-govern- 
ment, and  the  enjoyment  of  civil  liberty  ;  so  that  at  a  very 
early  period,  many  scattering  rays  of  light  were  shed  abroad 
in  this  western  hemisphere,  which  served  as  the  dawn  of  that 
brighter  day  of  liberty  which  we  now  behold  in  its  meridian 
splendour.  Although  the  English  and  Spanish  systems  of  col- 
onial government  in  America,  were  different,  yet  the  views 
and  policy  of  the  two  countries,  were  essentially  the  same, 
and  tended  to  the  same  result.  This  policy  was  to  keep  the 
colonies,  not  only  dependant,  but  tributary  states  ;  to  monopo- 
lize their  commerce,  to  cripple  their  manufactures,  and  in  all 
respects  to  render  them  contributary  to  the  wealth  and  ag- 
grandizement of  the  colonizing  country.  In  both  divisions  of 
the  American  continent,  this  policy  was  more  rigorously  pur- 
sued, as  the  colonies  became  more  populous  and  wealthy,  and 
as  a  jealousy  and  apprehension  of  their  independence  increas- 
ed. This  illiberal  policy  necessarily  led  to  a  separation,  and 


OF    SPANISH    AMERICA.  7 

lias  resulted  in  the  independance  and  freedom  of  the  greater 
part  of  America. 

Notwithstanding  the  vast  extent  of  the  new  world,  its  va- 
rious and  happy  climate,  its  magnificent  rivers  and  mountains, 
its  unrivalled  fertility  of  soil,  and  capacity  of  sustaining  a 
population  almost  surpassing  conception,  the  beneficial  influ- 
ence which  it  has  had  on  the  cause  of  civil  liberty  and  the 
moral  character  of  man,  is  infinitely  more  important,  than  all 
the  other  advantages  which  its  discovery  will  confer  on  the 
world.  If  it  had  contributed  to  the  enslavement  and  degrada- 
tion of  mankind,  it  might  even  be  a  problem  whether  its  dis- 
covery ought  to  be  regarded  as  a  blessing  or  an  evil ;  as  the 
eastern  hemisphere,  is  sufficiently  extensive  for  the  wretched 
abodes  of  slavery.  It  is  the  glory  and  pride  of  America,  and 
equally  so  now  in  two  great  divisions  of  this  continent,  that 
it  is  the  land  of  freedom,  and  the  asylum  of  the  oppressed  of 
all  nations  :  that  here  the  mind,  as  well  as  the  body  of  man, 
is  free,  and  ranges  at  large,  unrestrained  except  by  those  bar- 
riers which  his  Maker  has  established. 

Towards  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century,  a  spirit  of 
discovery  appeared  in  several  European  nations,  but  was  most 
conspicuous  in  Portugal.  The  fame  of  several  successful 
voyages  of  discovery,  made  by  the  Portuguese,  drew  many 
enterprising  foreigners  into  their  service,  and  among  the  num- 
ber, Christopher  Colon,  or  Columbus,  a  subject  of  the  repub- 
lic of  Genoa.  At  this  time,  he  possessed  great  experience 
as  a  navigator,  which  he  improved  by  several  voyages  to  Ma- 
deira, the  Canaries,  the  Azores,  and  all  other  places  which  the 
Portuguese  had  discovered  on  the  Continent  of  Africa,  so 
that  he  soon  became  one  of  the  most  skilful  navigators  in  Eu- 
rope. Possessing  a  mind  bold  arid  inquiring,  and  stimulated 
by  the  spirit  of  enterprise  and  discovery  which  prevailed,  Co- 
lumbus was  ambitious  to  exceed  the  bounds  which  had  limi- 
ted the  most  daring,  and  successful  navigators.  From  his 
geographical  knowledge,  and  various  facts  which  he  had  ob- 
served during  his  voyages,  he  had  for  some  time  conceived  the 
idea  of  finding  a  passage  by  sea  to  the  East  Indies,  by  sailing 
in  a  westerly  direction.  The  spices  and  other  rich  commo- 
dities from  India,  which  the  Venetians  had  introduced  into 
Europe,  by  the  trade  which  they  had  monopolized  with  that 
country,  had  excited  the  attention  arid  the  envy  of  their 
neighbours,  and  rendered  it  an  object  of  the  last  importance 
to  discover  a  more  direct  route  over  sea  to  that  country,  then 
affording  the  richest  commerce  in  the  world. 

Having  submitted  his  plan  of  a  voyage  of  discovery  both  to 
his  native  and  adopted  countries,  without  success,  he  next  ap- 


8  SKETCH    OF  THE  HISTORY 

plied  to  Spain.  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  then  governed  the 
united  kingdoms  of  Castile  and  Arragon.  After  having  spent 
more  than  eight  years  in  fruitless  endeavours,  during  which, 
he  had  to  contend  not  only  with  ignorance  and  prejudice,  but 
with  the  pride  of  false  knowledge ;  and  after  experiencing 
the  mortification  of  a  second  rejection  of  his  proposals,  just 
as  he  was  on  the  eve  of  leaving  the  country,  the  influence 
of  two  of  his  friends  with  the  Queen,  procured  for  him  that 
encouragement  which  his  own  knowledge  of  the  subject 
and  his  long  and  unwearied  exertions  had  not  been  able  to 
effect. 

Spain  is  entitled  to  but  little  honour,  for  having  been  the  na- 
tion under  whose  auspices  the  new  world  was  discovered,  and 
which,  for  two  centuries  and  a  half,  contributed,  in  an  eminent 
degree,  to  her  aggrandizement  and  power. 

On  the  third  day  of  August,  1492,  Columbus,  with  a  fleet 
(for  it  was  so  called)  of  three  small,  weak  vessels,  scarcely  fit 
for  a  voyage  to  the  Canary  Islands,  with  ninety  men  on  board, 
sailed  from  Cadiz  on  a  voyage  of  discovery.  On  the  12th  of 
October,  a  little  past  midnight,  the  joyful  cry  of  land  !  land ! 
was  heard  ;  the  truth  of  which  was  confirmed  by  the  dawn  of 
light,  to  the  unspeakable  joy  of  all.  At  sun  rise  the  boats 
were  manned  and  armed,  and,  with  colours  flying  and  martial 
music,  they  approached  the  shore,  which  was  lined  with  a 
multitude  of  strange  people,  entirely  naked,  who,  by  their  at- 
titudes and  gestures,  expressed  the  surprise  and  astonishment 
with  which  they  viewed  the  novel  objects  before  them.  Co- 
lumbus, in  a  rich  dress,  with  a  drawn  sword,  was  the  first  who 
stepped  upon  the  soil  of  the  new  world,  and,  being  followed 
by  his  men,  they  all  kneeled  down  and  kissed  the  ground 
which  had  so  long  been  the  object  of  their  almost  hopeless 
desire.  This  was  followed  by  the  erection  of  a  crucifix,  before 
which  they  prostrated  themselves,  and  returned  thanks  to  God 
for  conducting  their  voyage  to  so  happy  an  issue.  The  natives, 
although  extremely  timid,  gathered  around  them,  while  these 
ceremonies  were  performing,  and  gazed  with  silent  admiration, 
unable  to  comprehend  what  they  witnessed,  and  much  less  to 
foresee  the  misery  and  desolation  which  this  visit  of  a  new 
race  of  men  was  to  bring  upon  themselves  and  their  posteri- 
ty. They  were  filled  with  amazement  and  awe,  and  regarded 
their  strange  guests  as  superior  beings,  and  very  naturally  sup- 
posed that  they  were  the  children  of  the  sun,  who  had  deigned 
to  visit  the  earth.  The  fallacy  of  this  opinion  they  soon  real- 
ized, and  had  occasion  to  regard  them  rather  as  fiends  of  dark- 
ness, than  as  angels  of  light,  sent  on  errands  of  love. 

The  land  discovered  was  one  of  the  Bahama  Islands,  and 


»F    SPANISH    AMERICA.  9 

was  named,  by  Columbus,  San  Salvador.  After  exploring  the 
island,  and  discovering  several  others,  Columbus  set  sail  for 
Spain,  leaving  thirty-eight  of  his  people  on  the  island,  which 
he  named  Hispaniola,  for  the  protection  of  which  a  small  fort 
had  been  erected,  in  a  great  measure  by  the  industry  of  the 
natives,  who,  with  much  simplicity,  laboured,  in  conjunction 
with  their  invaders,  to  erect  the  first  instrument  of  their  slave- 
ry. Before  the  Discoverer  set  sail  on  his  second  voyage,  it 
was  deemed  necessary  to  obtain  a  grant  from  the  Pope,  who, 
as  the  head  of  the  church  and  vicegerent  of  the  Almighty, 
claimed  dominion  over  all  the  kingdoms  of  the  earth.  Ac- 
cordingly, his  holiness  granted,  with  great  form  and  solemnity, 
to  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  and  their  successors  forever,  all 
the  countries  inhabited  by  infidels,  which  they  had  discovered, 
or  might  discover,  but  did  not  undertake  to  bound  or  describe 
them,  as  he  was  ignorant  not  only  of  their  situation,  but  even 
of  their  existence.  To  prevent,  however,  this  grant  from  in- 
terfering with  one  previously  made  to  the  Crown  of  Portugal, 
he  directed  that  a  line  should  be  supposed  to  be  drawn  one 
hundred  leagues  to  the  westward  of  the  Azores,  from  pole  to 
pole,  and  all  the  unknown  countries,  east  of  this  line,  were  giv- 
en to  the  Portuguese,  and  those  west  to  the  Spaniards.  The 
consideration  of  this  grant  was  the  propagation  of  Christiani- 
ty among  the  heathen  nations  in  the  western  regions,  which 
Ferdinand  engaged  to  do.  Accordingly  Father  Boyle  and 
several  other  friars,  accompanied  Columbus  in  his  second  voy- 
age, to  instruct  the  natives  in  Christianity  ;  and  those  whom 
Columbus  had  carried  to  Spain,  after  some  pains  to  instruct 
them,  were  baptized,  Ferdinand  himself,  the  Prince  his  son, 
and  the  chief  persons  of  his  court,  standing  as  their  godfathers. 
These  were  the  first  fruits  of  missionary  exertions  among  the 
natives  of  America.  The  second  expedition  sailed  from  the 
Bay  of  Cadiz  on  the  25th  of  September,  1493,  and  by  steering 
a  more  sourtherly  direction  than  had  been  pursued  in  the 
previous  voyage,  the  first  land  discovered  was  the  Caribbee,  or 
Leeward  Islands.  Columbus  discovered  Dominica,  Porto  Ri- 
co, Guadaloupe,  Antigua,  and  several  other  islands  in  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  When  he  arrived  off  Navidad,  which  was 
the  name  he  had  given  to  the  port  where  he  had  left  the  garri- 
son, he  was  surprised  that  none  of  the  men  appeared,  as  he 
expected  to  behold  them  on  the  beach,  welcoming  their  coun- 
trymen with  transports  of  joy.  It  was  soon  discovered,  that 
the  fort  was  entirely  demolished,  and  the  tattered  garments 
and  broken  arms  around  it,  removed  all  doubts  as  to  the 
melancholy  fate  of  the  first  colony,  if  it  deserves  that  name, 
which  had  been  planted  in  the  new  world.  The  rashness  and 


10  SKETCH    OF  THE  HISTORY 

licentiousness  of  the  men,  brought  upon  them  their  own  de- 
struction. Alike  regardless  of  their  own  security  and  the 
rights  of  the  Indians,  they  seized  upon  whatever  they  could 
find;  the  provisions,  gold,  and  women  of  the  natives,  were 
their  prey.  Roused  by  such  insufferable  wrongs,  and  having 
thrown  off  the  fear  of  their  invaders,  by  familiar  intercourse 
with  them,  the  natives  were  determined  to  rid  themselves  of 
such  licentious  intruders. 

Columbus,  instead  of  re-occupying  the  same  spot,  chose  a 
situation  more  healthy  and  commodious,  at  the  head  of  a  ca- 
pacious bay,  where  he  traced  out  the  plan  of  a  large  town, 
and,  by  the  united  labour  of  all  hands,  the  houses  and  ram- 
parts were  in  a  short  time  so  far  advanced  as  to  afford  them 
shelter  and  protection.  This  which  must  be  considered  the 
first  settlement  in  the  new  world,  the  founder  named  Isabella, 
in  honour  of  his  patroness.  In  the  commencement  of  it, 
Columbus  had  not  only  to  contend  with  the  usual  difficulties 
connected  with  the  planting  of  a  colony  in  a  distant  and  un- 
cultivated country,  but  with  the  mutinous  disposition  of  many 
of  his  followers,  and  the  indolence  of  all  greatly  increased  by 
the  enervating  influence  of  a  hot  climate,  to  which  they  were 
unaccustomed.  Their  provisions  were  rapidly  consuming,  and 
what  remained  were  corrupted  by  the  heat  and  moisture  of  a 
tropical  climate  ;  the  natives  cultivated  but  little  ground,  and 
had  scarcely  sufficient  provisions  for  themselves,  consequently 
could  not  supply  the  wants  of  the  Spaniards.  The  malignant 
diseases,  which  prevail  in  the  torrid  zone,  especially  where 
the  country  is  uncultivated,  raged  among  them  with  great  vio- 
lence. Murmurs  and  complaints  arose  against  Columbus  and 
those  who  accompanied  him  in  his  former  voyage.  They  were 
accused  of  having  allured  their  countrymen  to  attempt  a  set- 
tlement in  a  land,  which  they  had  represented  as  a  terrestrial 
paradise,  but  in  reality,  barbarous  and  inhospitable,  where  they 
must  inevitably  perish  by  famine,  or  by  unknown  diseases.  By 
his  unwearied  exertions  and  prudent  measures,  Columbus 
succeeded  so  far  in  restoring  concord,  as  to  be  able  to  leave 
the  island  in  pursuit  of  further  discoveries.  During  a  tedious 
voyage  of  five  months,  attended  with  every  hardship  and 
peril,  he  made  no  discovery  of  importance,  except  the  Island 
of  Jamaica.  He  left  the  command  of  the  infant  colony  to 
his  brother,  Don  Diego,  with  the  assistance  of  a  council  of 
officers  ;  but  no  sooner  had  he  left  the  harbour,  than  the  sol- 
diers dispersed  over  the  island  in  small  parties,  lived  upon  the 
natives,  wasted  their  provisions,  seized  their  women,  and 
treated  that  inoffensive  race  with  all  the  insolence  of  military 
oppression.  The  natives  silently  submitted  to  these  oppres- 


OF  SPANISH   AMERICA.  11 

sions  for  a  considerable  time,  hoping  that  their  invaders  would 
leave  their  country  ;  but  discovering  that  they  had  not  come 
to  visit  the  island,  but  to  settle  in  it,  they  perceived  that  their 
oppressions  would  never  be  terminated  but  by  expelling  their 
cruel  invaders.  Roused  by  a  common  danger,  and  driven  al- 
most to  desperation,  all  the  caciques,  or  chiefs  of  the  island,  ex- 
cept Guacanahari,  who,  from  the  first,  had  been  the  friend  of  the 
Spaniards,  united  and  brought  into  the  field,  according  to  the 
Spanish  accounts,  a  force  of  one  hundred  thousand  men. 
Their  arms  were  clubs,  sticks  of  wood,  hardened  in  the  fire, 
and  arrows  pointed  with  bones  or  flints. 

Fortunately  for  the  Spaniards,  Columbus  retuned  just  at 
this  crisis,  and  his  presence  and  the  impending  danger,  restor- 
ed authority  and  produced  union.     But  two  thirds  of  the  ori- 
ginal number  had  died,  and  many  of  those  who  survived  were 
incapable  of  service,  so  that   two  hundred  foot  and  twenty 
horses,  were  all  that  could  take  the  field.     To  this  force  was 
united  one  of  a  -novel  kind,  consisting  of  twenty  large  bull- 
dogs, but  perhaps  not  the  least  efficient  against  timid  and  na- 
ked Indians.     With  great  simplicity  the  natives  collected  in  a 
large  plain,  instead  of  attempting  to  draw  the  Spaniards  into 
the  fastnesses  and  defiles  of  the  mountains.     Alarmed  by  the 
noise  and  havock  of  fire  arms,  the  impetuosity  of  the  cavalry, 
and  the  furious  assaults  of  ferocious  dogs,  the  natives  were 
instantly  filled  with  consternation,  and  threw  down  their  arms 
and  fled.     Many  were  slain,  and  a  much  greater  number  taken 
prisoners  and  reduced  to  a  state  of  servitude.     From  this  mo- 
ment, they  abandoned  themselves  to  despair,  and  relinquished 
all  thoughts  of  resisting  men,  whom  they  regarded  as  invinci- 
ble.    In  a  few  days  the    Spaniards  marched  over  the  whole 
island,  and  subjected  it  to  their  government,  without  further 
opposition.     The  natives  were  treated  as  a  conquered  people, 
and  a  tribute  imposed  upon  all  persons  above  the  age  of  four- 
teen years.     In  the  districts  where  gold  was  found,  each  per- 
.  son  was  obliged  to  pay  quarterly  as  much  gold  dust  as  filled  a 
hawk's  bill,  and  in  other  parts  of  the  island,  twenty-five  pounds 
of  cotton  were  demanded.     These  unjust  and   rigorous  meas- 
ures Columbus,  contrary  to  his  own  inclinations  and  his  ori- 
ginal plan  of  government,  was  contsrained  to  adopt,  to  satisfy 
the  rapacity  of  the  Spanish  court,  and  counteract  the  machina- 
tions of  his  enemies,  who  were  constantly  intriguing  to  destroy 
him.  '  This  was  the  first  regular  tax  imposed  on  the  natives, 
and  was  the  origin  of  that  system  of  exaction  of  tribute,  or  a 
capitation  tax,  from  the  natives,  which  Spain,  ever  after,  main- 
tained, with  the  most  intolerable  oppression. 
The  settlement  in  Hispaniola  was  the  parent,  and  served  as 


12  SKETCH    OF    THE   HISTORY 

the  model  of  all  the  other  Spanish  settlements  in  America 
Columbus,  having  returned  to  Spain,  a  more  regular  plan  for 
the  colony  was  adopted,  and  a  large  body  of  settlers  was  sent 
out,  consisting  of  husbandmen,  artizans,  and  workmen  skilled 
in  the  various  arts  of  digging  and  working  mines,  and  refining 
the  precious  metals,  together  with  a  suitable  number  of  wo- 
men. All  these  emigrants  were,  for  a  certain  number  of 
years,  to  be  supported  and  paid  by  the  Spanish  government. 
With  these  prudent  and  judicious  regulations,  Columbus  pro- 
posed one  of  a  most  pernicious  nature,  which  was  the  trans- 
portation, to  the  colony,  of  certain  convicts,  who  had  usually 
been  sent  to  the  gallies.  This  fatal  expedient,  inconsiderate- 
ly proposed,  was,  with  as  little  consideration,  adopted,  and  the 
prisons  of  Spain  were  drained  to  recruit  the  colony.  This 
absurd  and  cruel  measure  of  emptying  their  jails  into  their 
colonies,  was  not  only  continued  by  Spain,  but  imitated  by 
Great  Britain,  and  in  both  continents  held  no  unimportant  sta- 
tion in  the  catalogue  of  colonial  grievances  against  the  mother 
country. 

In  the  third  voyage  made  by  Columbus,  he  sailed  further  to 
the  south,  and  the  first  land  he  discovered  was  the  Island  of 
Trinidad,  on  the  coast  of  Guiana,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Ori- 
noco. Columbus,  having  become  involved  among  those  ad- 
verse currents  and  tempestuous  waves,  produced  by  the  body 
of  water  which  this  river  rolls  into  the  ocean,  with  difficulty 
escaped  through  a  narrow  strait  He,  however,  very  justly 
concluded,  that  a  river  of  such  vast  magnitude  could  not  flow 
from  an  island,  as  it  must  require  a  country  of  great  extent  to 
supply  so  large  a  body  of  water,  and  consequently  felt  persua- 
ded that  he  had  at  length  discovered  the  continent  which  had 
so  long  been  the  supreme  object  of  his  hopes  and  wishes.  He 
directed  his  course  to  the  west,  along  the  coast  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Cumana ;  landed  at  several  places,  and  had  some  in- 
tercourse with  the  inhabitants,  who  he  found  resembled  those 
of  Hispaniola,  although  possessed  of  a  better  understanding 
and  more  courage. 

When  Columbus  arrived  at  Hispaniola,  he  found  the  colony 
in  an  unprosperous  and  distracted  state.  After  his  departure, 
his  brother,  in  pursuance  of  his  advice,  removed  the  colony 
from  Isabella,  to  a  more  eligible  station,  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  island,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  present  town  of 
St.  Domingo,  which,  for  a  long  period,  remained  the  most  con- 
siderable European  settlement  in  America,  and  was  the  seat  of 
the  supreme  courts  in  the  Spanish  dominions.  A  war  with  the 
natives  broke  out,  and  whilst  Diego  Columbus  was  employed 
against  them  in  the  field,  his  attention  was  arrested  by  a  most 


OF    SPANISH    AMERICA.  13 

alarming  mutiny  among  the  Spaniards,  which  threatened  the 
ruin  of  the  colony.  Columbus,  by  a  reasonable  offer  of  par- 
don, and  other  judicious  measures,  succeeded  in  allaying  the 
spirit  of  sedition,  and  induced  the  malecontents  to  return  to 
their  duty.  To  effect  this  object,  however,  he  was  obliged  so 
far  to  yield  to  the  demands  of  the  mutineers,  as  to  agree  to 
grant  to  them  allotments  of  land  in  different  parts  of  the  isl- 
and, with  the  right  to  the  servitude  of  the  natives  settled  on 
the  same,  so  far  as  that  they  were  to  cultivate  a  certain  portion 
of  ground  for  the  use  of  their  new  masters,  which  was  to  be 
in  lieu  of  the  tribute  that  had  been  imposed  on  them.  This 
regulation  was  the  germ  of  the  system  of  Repartimientos,  or 
distribution  and  servitude  of  the  natives,  which  was  establish- 
ed throughout  the  Spanish  dominions  in  America.  This  plan 
of  domestic  servitude  was  founded  on  the  same  principles 
with  the  feudal  system,  so  far  as  that  applied  to  villens  or  serfs, 
who  performed  the  most  degrading  services,  were  attached  to 
the  soil  and  were  transferrable  with  it.  It  reduced  a  large 
proportion  of  the  natives  in  all  the  Spanish  dominions,  to  the 
most  humiliating  servitude,  and  subjected  them  to  grievous 
and  intolerable  oppressions.  It  is  one  of  the  sources  from 
whence  have  flowed  the  tears  of  an  oppressed  people,  in 
such  profusion,  as  if  collected  into  one  channel,  would  almost 
swell  to  a  flood  the  vast  rivers  which  flow  through  their 
country. 

In  the  year  1500,  Alonzo  de  Ojeda,  a  gallant  officer,  who 
had  accompanied  Columbus  in  his  second  voyage,  sailed  on  an 
expedition  to  America,  with  four  ships,  which  had  been  equip- 
ped by  the  merchants  of  Seville,  and  was  accompanied  by 
Americus  Vespucius,  a  gentleman  of  Florence.  Having  ob- 
tained a  chart  of  Columbus'  last  voyage,  Ojeda  servilely  follow- 
ed in  the  same  track,  and  arrived  on  the  coast  of  Paria.  He 
sailed  to  the  west  as  far  as  the  Cape  de  Vala,  and  traversed 
the  coast  a  considerable  extent  beyond  where  Columbus  had 
touched,  and  returned  by  way  of  Hispaniola  to  Spain, 

Americus,  on  his  return,  wrote  an  account  of  the  voyage  and 
discoveries,  and  framed  his  narrative  with  so  much  art  and  ad- 
dress, as  to  secure  to  himself  the  credit  and  glory  of  having 
first  discovered  the  continent  in  the  New  World.  The  novel- 
ty of  the  work,  being  the  first  publication  concerning  the  dis- 
coveries which  had  been  made  in  the  Western  World,  and  the 
amusing  history  which  he  gave  of  the  voyage  and  adventures, 
obtained  for  it  a  rapid  and  extensive  circulation,  and  spread 
the  fame  of  the  author  over  Europe.  This  bold  attempt  to 
assume  the  merit  and  glory,  which  belonged  to  another,  by  an 
unaccountable  caprice,  has  been  suffered  to  succeed,  and  by 

VOL.  I.  2 


14  SKETCH    OF    THE   HISTORY 

the  universal  consent  of  nations,  the  name  of  America,  has 
been  bestowed  on  the  New  World. 

During  the  fourth  voyage  made  by  Columbus,  he  discover- 
ed the  Island  of  Guiana,  and  the  coast  of  the  Continent  from 
Cape  Gracias  a  Dios,  to  a  harbour,  which  from  its  beauty  and 
security,  he  called  Porto  Bello.  He  went  on  shore  at  various 
places,  and  penetrated  into  the  country,  but  searched  in  vain 
for  the  strait  that  he  had  long  been  attempting  to  discover, 
which  he  supposed  led  into  an  unknown  ocean.  He  was  so 
charmed  with  the  fertility  of  the  country,  and  the  specimens  of 
gold  found  on  the  natives,  that  he  determined  to  plant  a  small 
colony  under  the  command  of  his  brother,  in  the  province  of 
Verague.  But  the  insolence  and  rapacity  of  his  men,  provoked 
the  natives,  who  were  a  more  warlike  race  than  those  of  the 
Islands,  to  take  up  arms  against  the  Spaniards,  part  of  whom 
were  killed,  and  the  rest  obliged  to  seek  safety  by  abandoning 
the  station. 

This  was  the  first  repulse  the  Spaniards  had  received  from 
the  natives,  and  deprived  Columbus  of  the  honour  of  planting 
the  first  colony  on  the  continent  of  America. 

From  the  first  discovery  of  the  continent  by  Columbus,  ten 
years  elapsed  before  the  Spaniards  had  made  a  settlement  in 
any  part  of  it;  but  in  the  year  1509,  two  expeditions  were  fit- 
ted out  for  this  purpose,  by  individual  enterprise  ;  one  under 
the  command  of  Ojeda,  and  the  other,  under  Nicuessa ;  the 
former  consisted  of  three  vessels  and  three  hundred  men,  and 
"  the  latter  of  six  vessels,  and  seven  hundred  men.  A  grant  or 
patent,  was  given  to  Ojeda.  of  the  country  from  Cape  de  Vela 
to  the  Gulf  of  Darien ;  and  to  Nicuessa,  from  thence  to  Cape 
Gracias  a  Dios,  with  the  power  of  planting  colonies  and  estab- 
lishing a  government. 

These  adventurers  were  instructed  to  acquaint  the  natives 
with  the  primary  articles  of  Christianity,  and  particularly  to  in- 
form them  of  the  supreme  jurisdiction  of  the  Pope,  and  of  the 
grant  which  he  had  made  of  their  country  to  the  king  of  Spain ; 
and  then  to  require  them  to  embrace  Christianity,  and  to  ac- 
knowledge the  authority  of  the  Spanish  Sovereign  ;  and  in  case 
the  natives  did  not  comply  with  these  requirements,  they  were 
told,  it  would  be  lawful  to  attack  them  with  fire  and  sword,  ex- 
terminate them,  and  reduce  their  wives  and  children  to  servi- 
tude, or  compel  them  to  acknowledge  the  authority  of  the 
Church  and  of  the  Spanish  monarch.  This  very  wise  and  rea- 
sonable mode  of  taking  possession  of  the  country,  was  prescri- 
bed by  the  most  eminent  lawyers  and  divines  in  Spain.  Both 
of  these  attempts  failed,  and  nearly  all  engaged  in  them,  with 
two  considerable  re-enforcements  from  St.  Domingo,  perished 


OF    SPANISH    AMERICA.  15 

within  one  year.  The  aborigines  were  fierce  and  warlike,  and 
manifested  the  most  implacable  enmity  towards  them ;  they 
used  arrows  dipped  in  poison  so  noxious,  that  almost  every 
wound  was  followed  by  death.  Seventy  of  the  Spaniards  were 
killed  in  one  engagement  What  few  survived,  settled  at  San- 
ta Maria,  on  the  Gulf  of  Darien,  under  Vasco  Balboa,  whose 
extraordinary  courage  in  the  most  trying  emergencies,  secured 
to  him  the  confidence  of  his  countrymen,  and  the  rank  of  their 
leader.  This  was  not  the  only  bold  adventurer,  afterwards 
distinguished  for  daring  exploits  and  splendid  undertakings, 
that  was  engaged  in  this  unfortunate  enterprise.  The  cele- 
brated Francisco  Pizarro,  was  one  of  Ojeda's  party,  and  in  this 
school  of  adversity  and  hardships,  qualified  himself  for  the  won- 
derful achievements  which  he  subsequently  performed.  Fer- 
nando Cortes,  was  at  first  engaged  in  this  enterprise  ;  but  be- 
ing taken  sick  at  St.  Domingo  before  the  expedition  sailed,  he 
was  left  behind  and  his  life  spared  for  more  daring  arid  suc- 
cessful undertakings. 

Balboa  made  frequent  incursions  into  the  country,  and  sub- 
dued several  of  the  caciques  ;  and  being  informed  by  the  na- 
tives, that  at  the  distance  of  many  suns  to  the  south,  there  was 
another  ocean,  where  gold  was  so  common,  that  the  inhabitants 
made  their  common  utensils  of  that  metal,  he  concluded  that 
this  ocean  was  the  one  for  which  Columbus  had  so  long  search- 
ed in  vain,  and  that  it  afforded  a  direct  communication  to  the 
East  Indies.  With  one  hundred  and  ninety  men,  a  pm  of 
which  he  had  obtained  from  Hispaniola,  he  undertook  the 
bold  expedition,  of  crossing  over  the  Isthmus  which  connects 
North  and  South  America,  without  any  knowledge  of  the  ex- 
tent or  nature  of  the  country,  or  any  guides  but  natives,  on 
whose  fidelity  he  could  not  safely  rely. 

Balboa  set  out  on  this  expedition  on  the  first  of  September, 
1513;  and  after  twenty-five  days  of  incredible  hardships,  in 
passing  over  a  country  abounding  in  mountains,  rivers  and 
swamps,  and  filled  with  hostile  tribes ;  from  the  summit  of  a 
mountain,  he  beheld  the  Pacific  Ocean,  stretching  in  endless 
extent  before  him.  He  hurried  towards  it,  and  rushed  into  the 
briny  waves  to  his  middle,  with  his  sword  and  buckler,  and  in 
a  transport  of  joy,  took  possession  of  that  vast  Ocean  in  the 
name  of  his  Sovereign,  and  swore  to  defend  it  with  his  arms 
against  all  his  enemies.  He  named  this  part  of  the  Southern 
Ocean,  the  Gulf  of  St.  Michael,  which  it  has  ever  since  retain- 
ed. Balboa  learnt  from  the  natives,  that  pearl  oysters  abound- 
ed in  the  sea  he  had  discovered,  and  that  there  was  a  very  opu- 
lent country,  where  the  inhabitants  were  more  civilized,  which 
lay  to  the  south  ;  but  not  thinking  it  prudent  to  go  in  search  of 


16  SKETCH    OF    THE    HISTORY 

it  with  his  small  and  exhausted  party,  he  returned  to  Santa 
Maria ;  and  embraced  the  first  opportunity  to  communicate 
his  discoveries  to  the  Spanish  government,  and  requested  a 
re-enforcement  of  one  thousand  men,  lo  conquer  the  country 
he  had  discovered.  But,  disregarding  Balboa's  important  ser- 
vices, the  king  sent  out  an  expedition,  and  appointed  Pedrari- 
as  Davila,  governor  of  Darien.  By  his  incapacity  and  miscon- 
duct, he  nearly  destroyed  the  colony ;  and  from  his  envy  and 
jealousy  of  Balboa,  he  caused  him  to  be  arrested,  just  as  he 
was  on  the  eve  of  setting  out  on  an  expedition  to  the  South 
Sea,  and  after  a  mock  trial,  to  be  executed.  This  cruel  mur- 
der of  the  most  able  and  successful  adventurer  and  command- 
er the  Spaniards  had  in  America,  not  only  passed  without  cen- 
sure, but  the  tyrant  was  continued  at  the  head  of  the  colony. 
Soon  after  this  he  obtained  permission,  and  removed  the  colo- 
ny to  Panama,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Isthmus.  The  ob- 
ject of  this  was  to  obtain  a  more  healthful  situation.  The 
new  location  of  the  colony  greatly  facilitated  the  subsequent 
discoveries  and  conquests  in  the  Southern  Ocean. 

In  the  year  1515,  Juan  de  Solis,  who  was  deemed  one  of 
the  most  skilful  navigators  in  Spain,  commanded  an  expedi- 
tion to  America,  and  sailing  along  the  coast  of  the  Southern 
Continent,  on  the  first  day  of  January  the  following  year,  he 
discovered  a  river,  which  he  named  Rio  Janeiro,  from  the  day 
on  which  it  was  discovered.  He  continued  along  the  coast, 
tilid  discovered  a  spacious  bay,  which  proved  to  be  the  mouth 
of  the  Rio  de  Plata,  one  of  the  great  rivers  of  the  Southern 
Continent. 

He  advanced  up  the  bay,  and  having  landed  with  the  inten- 
tion of  penetrating  into  the  country,  De  Solis  and  several  of 
his  men  were  slain  by  the  natives,  their  bodies  cut  in  pieces, 
roasted  and  eaten  in  sight  of  the  ships.  The  loss  of  the  com- 
mander occasioned  the  return  of  the  expedition  without  ma- 
king any  further  discoveries. 

Diego  Velasques,  in  1 51 1,  cammanded  an  expedition  from 
Hispaniola,  against  the  Island  of  Cuba,  arid  with  a  force  of 
three  hundred  men,  he  conquered  an  Island  of  seven  hundred 
miles  in  length,  filled  with  inhabitants  ;  and  from  his  prudent 
administration  it  became  one  of  the  most  flourishing  of  the 
Spanish  settlements.  A  colony  was  planted  in  Cumana,  by 
Las  Casas,  an  ecclesiastic,  who,  deeply  affected  with  the  mis- 
erable servitude  to  which  the  natives  were  reduced,  had  long 
exerted  himself  for  the  melioration  of  their  unhappy  condi- 
tion. This  colony  was  commenced  for  this  laudable  purpose ; 
but  the  Indians  having  been  treated  with  such  injustice  and 
cruelty,  and  being  in  the  highest  state  of  exasperation  against 


OF    SPANISH    AMERICA.  17 

the  Spaniards,  in  a  secret  but  ferocious  manner,  attacked  the 
colony,  cut  off  a  part  of  them,  and  compelled  the  rest  to  fly  in 
consternation  to  the  Island  of  Cubagua.  The  expulsion  of 
this  colony,  was  in  the  year  1521.  An  expedition  was  fitted 
out  from  Cuba,  under  Francisco  Cordova,  and  steering  in  a 
westerly  direction,  they  discovered  a  peninsula  projecting  from 
the  continent,  which  he  named  Yucatan,  which  it  has  ever 
since  retained. 

The  natives  were  more  civilized  and  warlike  ;  they  surprised 
and  attacked  the  Spaniards  with  courage,  and  in  consequence 
of  their  hostile  disposition,  no  attempt  was  made  to  effect  a 
settlement.  Proceeding  to  the  west,  and  continuing  in  sight 
of  the  coast,  in  sixteen  days  they  arrived  at  Campeachy. 
Cordova  having  landed  with  his  men  to  procure  water,  the 
natives  rushed  upon  them  in  such  numbers,  and  with  such  im- 
petuosity, that  forty-seven  of  the  Spaniards  were  killed,  and 
nearly  every  man  wounded,  so  that  it  was  with  difficulty  they 
regained  their  ships.  Notwithstanding  the  disastrous  result  of 
this  expedition,  a  new  one  was  soon  after  fitted  out  from  Cuba, 
under  Juan  de  Grijalva,  who  proceeding  farther  west  than 
Cordova,  sailed  along  the  coast  of  a  fertile  and  delightful 
country,  and  with  much  surprise  and  admiration  witnessed  the 
villages  which  lay  scattered  along  the  shore  ;  they  discovered 
stone  houses,  which  at  a  distance,  appeared  white  and  lofty ; 
they  even  imagined  they  saw  cities  with  towers  and  pinna- 
cles ;  and  one  of  the  sailors  observing  that  the  country  resem- 
bled Spain,  Grijalva  gave  it  the  name  of  New  Spain,  which 
was  received  with  universal  applause.  It  is  scarcely  necessa- 
ry to  add  that  this  extensive  and  interesting  portion  of  Ameri- 
ca, has  retained  the  name  ever  since,  or  at  least  to  the  extinc- 
tion of  the  authority  of  Spain  over  it. 

Continuing  his  course  to  the  west,  Grijalva  touched  at  sev- 
eral places,  and  atone  Island,  which  he  called  Uloa,  and  from 
thence  proceeded  along  the  coast  as  far  as  the  river  Panuco, 
and  then  returned  to  Cuba. 


2* 


18  SKETCH    OF    THE    HISTORY 


CHAPTER  II. 

Expedition  against  Mexico  under  Cortes — lands  at  St.  Juan  de 
Uloa— first  interview  with  the  natives — they  offer  rich  pre- 
sents to  the  Spaniards — Cortes  establishes  a  council  of  magis- 
trates and  commences  the  town  of  Vera  Cruz — he  destroys  his 
ships — marches  for  Mexico — is  opposed  by  the  Tlascalans,  who 
are  defeated  and  sue  for  peace — slaughter  of  the  inhabit- 
ants at  Cholula — Spaniards  approach  the  capital — -first  inter- 
view with  the  sovereign — Cortes  gets  possession  of  Montezuma 
and  governs  the  empire  in  his  name — the  governor  of  Cuba 
sends  an  expedition  against  Cortes — Mexicans  revolt  and  a 
dreadful  contest  ensues — Montezuma  killed — Spaniards  retire 
end  suffer  greatly — action  in  the  valley  of  Otumba — Cortes 
receives  reinforcements — Marches  for  Mexico — commences  the 
siege — Guatamozin  taken — -the  city  surrenders — Guatamozin 
tortured  to  compel  him  to  discover  his  treasure — discoveries 
of  Magellan — Cortes  rebuilds  Mexico — the  natives  revolt — 
their  caciques  and  nobles  put  to  death. 

HITHERTO  the  Spaniards  had  done  little  more  than  to 
enlarge  their  discoveries  upon  the  continent  of  America ;  from 
the  coast  of  Florida  north,  they  had  touched  at  different  pla- 
ces, as  far  as  thirty-five  degrees  south  of  the  equator  ;  they 
had  visited  most  of  the  islands  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  off 
the  coast  of  the  main  land,  and  had  discovered  the  great  Sou- 
thern Ocean,  which  opened  extensive  prospects  and  unbound- 
ed expectations  in  that  quarter. 

But  although  the  settlements  at  Hispaniola  and  Cuba,  had 
become  considerably  flourishing  and  important,  and  afforded 
great  facilities  for  enterprises  on  the  continent,  no  colony  had 
been  maintained  there,  except  the  feeble  and  languishing  one 
at  Darien,  and  nothing  had  been  attempted  towards  the  con- 
quest of  the  extensive  country  which  had  been  discovered. 
The  ferocity  and  courage  of  the  natives,  with  the  other  obsta- 
cles attending  such  an  enterprise,  had  discouraged  the  adven- 
turers, who  had  explored  the  continent,  and  they  returned  con- 
tented with  the  discoveries  they  had  made,  and  the  taking 
possession  of  the  country,  without  attempting  to  maintain  any 
foothold  in  it.  This  was  the  state  of  Spanish  affairs  in  Amer- 
ica in  the  year  1518,  twenty-six  years  after  the  discovery  of 
the  country  by  Columbus.  But  at  this  period  a  new  era  com- 
menced, and  the  astonishing  genius,  and  almost  incredible  ex- 


OF  SPANISH   AMERICA*  19 

ertions  of  one  man,  conquered  a  powerful  and  populous  nation, 
which,  compared  with  those  tribes,  with  which  the  Spaniards 
had  hitherto  been  acquainted,  were  a  civilized  people,  under- 
standing the  arts  of  life,  and  were  settled  in  towns,  villages,  and 
even  large,  and  populous  cities. 

Intelligence  of  the  important  discoveries  made  by  Grijalva, 
was  no  sooner  communicated  to  Valasques,  than,  prompted  by 
ambition,  he  conceived  the  plan  of  fitting  out  a  large  arma- 
ment for  the  conquest  and  occupation  of  the  country  ;  and  so 
great  was  his  ardour,  that  without  waiting  for  the  authority  of 
his  Sovereign,  or  the  return  of  Grijalva,  the  expedition  was 
prepared  and  ready  to  sail  about  the  time  the  latter  entered 
the  port  of  St.  Jago  de  Cuba.  Vaiasques  was  ambitious  of 
the  glory  which  he  expected  would  attend  the  expedition,  yet 
being  sensible  that  he  had  neither  the  courage  nor  capacity  to 
command  it  himself,  he  was  greatly  embarrassed  in  selecting 
a  person  who  suited  his  views  ;  as  he  wanted  a  man  of  suffi- 
cient courage,  talents  and  experience  to  command,  but  who 
at  the  same  time,  would  be  a  passive  instrument  in  his  hands. 
It  was  with  no  small  difficulty  a  man  of  this  description  could 
be  found,  as  those  possessing  the  requisite  abilities,  had  too 
much  spirit  to  be  the  creature  of  a  jealous  and  capricious 
master.  At  length  two  of  the  secretaries  of  Valasques,  re- 
commended Fernando  Cortes,  as  a  man  suitable  for  his  pur- 
pose ;  and,  happily  for  his  country,  but  fatally  for  himself,  he 
immediately  fell  in  with  the  proposition.  Valasques  believed 
that  Cortes  possessed  courage  and  talents  for  command,  united 
with  a  bold  and  adventurous  spirit,  and  that  his  humble  condi- 
tion would  keep  him  dependant  on  his  will,  and  prevented  his 
aspiring  at  independence.  Cortes  was  one  of  the  adventu- 
rers who  came  out  to  Hispaniolain  the  year  1504,  when  the 
Island  was  under  the  governorship  of  Ovando,  who  was  a 
kinsman  of  his ;  from  which  circumstance,  he  was  immedi- 
ately employed  in  several  lucrative  and  honourable  stations ; 
but  not  being  satisfied  with  these,  he  accompanied  Valasques 
in  his  expedition  to  Cuba  ;  and  distinguished  himself  in  the 
conquest  of  that  Island.  Cortes  received  his  commission 
with  the  warmest  gratitude,  and  erecting  his  standard  before 
his  own  house,  he  immediately  assumed  the  ensigns  of  his 
new  dignity. 

His  extraordinary  talents  and  activity  were  at  once  brought 
into  requisition,  and  so  great  and  unremitted  were  his  exer- 
tions in  forwarding  the  expedition,  that  he  sailed  from  St. 
Jago  de  Cuba  on  the  eighteenth  day  of  November,  in  the  year 
1518,  a  short  time  after  he  received  his  commission.  Cortes 
proceeded  to  Trinidad,  a  small  settlement  on  the  same  side  of 


20  SKETCH  OF    THE  HISTORY 

the  Island,  where  he  was  joined  by  seveml  adventurers,  and 
received  a  supply  of  provisions  and  military  stores.  Valas- 
ques,  who  had  been  jealous  of  Cortes  before  he  sailed,  was 
confirmed  in  his  suspicions  of  his  fidelity  as  soon  as  he  was  no 
longer  in  his  power,  and  immediately  despatched  orders  to 
Trinidad  to  deprive  him  of  his  commission.  But  he  had  al- 
ready acquired  the  confidence  of  his  officers  and  men  in  such 
a  degree  as  to  be  able  to  intimidate  the  chief  magistrate  of  the 
place,  and  depart  without  molestation.  From  this  place  Cor- 
tes sailed  to  the  Havanna,  where  he  obtained  more  recruits 
and  additional  supplies.  Valasques,  irritated  and  mortified  at 
the  failure  of  his  first  attempt  to  deprive  Cortes  of  his  com- 
mission, despatched  a  confidential  friend  to  this  place  with  pe- 
remptory orders  to  Pedro  Barba  his  Lieutenant  Governor  in 
that  colony,  instantly  to  arrest  Cortes,  and  send  him  under  a 
strong  guard,  a  prisoner  to  St.  Jago,  and  to  countermand  the 
sailing  of  the  fleet.  Cortes  having  obtained  information  of 
the  designs  of  Valasques,  before  his  messenger  arrived,  imme- 
diately took  measures  to  counteract  them.  He  ordered  such 
of  his  officers  as  he  knew  to  be  particularly  attached  to  the 
governor,  on  some  service  abroad,  and  then  acquainted  the 
men  of  the  unreasonable  jealousy  of  the  governor,  and  with 
his  intention  to  deprive  him  of  his  command,  and  arrest  the 
progress  of  the  armament.  The  officers  and  men  were 
equally  astonished  and  indignant  at  the  conduct  of  the  gov- 
ernor, and  with  one  voice  beseeched  Cortes  not  to  deprive 
them  of  a  leader  in  whom  they  all  had  such  confidence,  and 
offered  to  shed  the  last  drop  of  their  blood  to  maintain  his  au- 
thority. 

This  was  the  result  expected  by  Cortes,  and  was  highly 
gratifying  to  his  ambition.  In  reply,  he  informed  his  men  that 
he  would  never  desert  soldiers  who  had  given  such  signal 
proofs  of  attachment,  and  promised  instantly  to  conduct  them 
to  that  rich  country  which  had  been  so  long  the  object  of  their 
hopes  and  wishes.  Every  thing  was  now  ready  for  their  de- 
parture. 

The  fleet  consisted  of  eleven  vessels,  one  of  an  hundred 
tons,  three  of  seventy  or  eighty,  and  the  residue  small  open 
barks.  There  were  on  board  five  hundred  and  eight  soldiers, 
and  one  hundred  and  nine  seamen  and  artificers,  making  in 
all  six  hundred  and  seventeen  men.  A  part  of  the  men  had 
fire  arms,  the  rest  cross  bows,  swords  and  spears  They  had 
only  sixteen  horses  and  ten  small  field  pieces.  With  this 
force  Cortes  was  about  to  commence  war  with  a  view  of  con- 
quest, upon  a  nation  whose  dominions  were  more  extensive 
than  all  the  kingdoms  subject  to  the  Spanish  crown,  and  which 


OP    SPANISH    AMERICA.  21 

was  filled  with  people  considerably  advanced  in  civilization. 
Although  this  expedition  was  undertaken  for  the  purpose  of 
aggression  and  for  plunder  and  conquest,  yet  so  strange  and 
blind  is  religious  fanaticism,  that  with  these  objects  were 
blended  the  propagation  of  Christianity  ;  and  upon  the  Span- 
ish standards,  a  large  cross  was  displayed  with  this  inscrip- 
tion :  "  Let  us  follow  the  cross  for  under  this  sign  we  shall  con- 
quer  /" 

The  expedition  touched  at  the  several  places  which  had 
been  visited  by  Grijalva,  and  continued  its  course  to  the  west- 
ward until  it  arrived  at  St.  Juan  de  Uloa,  where  a  large  canoe 
filled  with  people,  two  of  whom  appeared  to  be  persons  of 
distinction,  approached  the  fleet  with  signs  of  friendship,  and 
came  on  board  without  any  symptoms  of  fear  or  distrust.  By 
means  of  a  female  Indian,  who  had  previously  been  taken  on 
board,  and  was  afterwards  known  by  the  name  of  Donna  Ma- 
rina, and  who  understood  the  Aztec,  or  Mexican  language, 
Cortes  ascertained  that  the  two  persons  of  distinction  were 
deputies  despatched  by  the  two  governors  of  the  province, 
and  that  they  acknowledged  the  authority  of  a  great  monarch, 
whom  they  called  Montazuma,  who  was  sovereign  of  the 
whole  country  ;  and  that  they  were  sent  to  inquire  what  his 
object  was  in  visiting  their  shores,  and  to  offer  him  any  assist- 
ance he  might  stand  in  need  of,  in  order  to  continue  his  voy- 
age. Cortes  informed  them  that  he  had  visited  their  country 
with  no  other  than  the  most  friendly  intentions,  and  for  an  ob- 
ject of  very  great  importance  to  their  king  and  country.  The 
next  morning  without  waiting  an  answer,  the  Spaniards  land- 
ed ;  and  the  natives,  like  the  man  who  warmed  the  frozen 
snake,  which  reviving,  bit  his  child  to  death,  assisted  them 
with  great  alacrity,  little  suspecting  that  they  were  introducing 
into  their  peaceful  borders,  the  invaders  and  despoilers  of 
their  country.  In  the  course  of  the  day,  Teutile  and  Pilpatoe, 
the  two  governors  of  the  province,  entered  the  camp  of  Cor- 
tes, with  a  numerous  retinue,  and  were  received  with  much 
ceremony  and  apparent  respect.  Cortes  informed  them  that 
he  came  as  ambassador  from  Don  Carlos,  king  of  Castile,  the 
most  powerful  monarch  of  the  East,  and  that  the  object  of  his 
embassy  was  of  such  vast  moment,  that  he  could  communi- 
cate it  to  no  one  but  Montazuma  himself,  and  therefore  re- 
quested that  they  would  conduct  him  into  the  presence  of  the 
Emperor.  The  Mexican  officers  were  astonished  at  so  extra- 
ordinary a  proposition,  and  attempted  to  dissuade  Cortes  from 
it ;  but  he  insisted  upon  a  compliance  with  his  request,  in  a 
peremptory  and  almost  authoritative  manner.  In  the  mean- 
time, he  observed  some  of  the  natives  delineating  on  white 


22  SKETCH    OF    THE    HISTORY 

cotton  cloth,  figures  of  the  ships,  horses,  artillery,  soldiers, 
fire  arms  and  other  objects  which  attracted  their  attention  ; 
and  being  informed  that  these  were  to  be  conveyed  to  Mon- 
tazuma,  he  wished  to  fill  their  Emperor  with  the  greatest  pos- 
sible awe,  of  the  irresistible  power  of  his  strange  guests.  He 
instantly  ordered  the  troops  formed  in  order  of  battle,  various 
martial  movements  and  evolutions  were  performed,  the  horse 
exhibited  a  specimen  of  their  agility  and  impetuosity,  and  the 
field  pieces  were  discharged  into  the  wood,  which  made 
dreadful  havoc  among  the  trees.  The  Mexicans  looked  on  in 
silent  amazement,  until  the  cannon  were  fired,  when  some  fled, 
others  fell  on  the  ground,  and  all  were  filled  with  consterna- 
tion and  dismay  ;  and  were  confounded  at  the  sight  of  men 
who  seemed  to  command  the  thunder  of  heaven,  and  whose 
power  appeared  so  nearly  to  resemble  that  of  the  Great 
Spirit. 

Messengers  were  immediately  despatched  to  Montazuma, 
and  returned  in  a  few  days,  although  Mexico,  where  he  resi- 
ded, was  one  hundred  and  eighty  miles  from  St.  Juan  de  Uloa, 
where  Cortes  was.  This  despatch  was  in  consequence  of  an 
improvement  in  police,  which  had  not  then  been  introduced 
into  Europe  ;  couriers  were  stationed  at  given  distances 
along  the  principal  roads  and  being  trained  to  the  business, 
they  conveyed  intelligence  with  great  despatch.  Teutile  and 
Pilpatoe,  were  empowered  to  deliver  the  answer  of  their 
master  to  Cortes ;  but  previous  to  which,  agreeably  to  their 
instructions;  and  with  the  mistaken  hope  of  conciliating  his 
favour,  they  offered  to  him  the  presents  which  had  been  sent 
by  the  Emperor.  These  were  introduced  with  great  ceremo- 
ny, by  n  train  of  one  hundred  Indians,  each  loaded  with  the 
presents  of  his  sovereign  ;  they  were  deposited  on  mats  so 
placed  as  to  shew  them  to  the  greatest  advantage,  and  consist- 
ed of  the  manufactures  of  the  country,  such  as  fine  cotton 
stuffs,  so  splendid  as  to  resemble  rich  silks  ;  pictures  of  ani- 
mals and  other  national  objects,  formed  of  feathers  of  various 
hues,  with  such  wonderful  art  and  skill,  as  to  rival  the  works 
of  the  pencil ;  but  what  most  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
Spaniards,  whose  avidity  for  the  precious  metals  knew  no 
bounds,  was  the  manufactures  of  gold  and  silver.  Among 
the  bracelets,  collars,  rings  and  trinkets  of  gold,  were  two 
large  plates  of  a  circular  form,  one  of  massive  gold,  represent- 
ing the  sun,  the  other  of  silver,  an  emblem  of  the  moon. — 
These  specimens  of  the  riches  of  the  country,  instead  of  con- 
ciliating the  favour  of  the  Spaniards,  and  inducing  them  to 
quit  the  country,  had  the  effect  of  oil  cast  upon  flames,  with 
the  view  to  extinguish  it  ;  they  inflamed  their  cupidity  for 


OF    SPANISH    AMERICA.  23 

gold  to  such  a  pitch,  as  that  they  could  hardly  be  restrained 
in  their  ardour  to  become  masters  of  a  country  affording  such 
riches.  These  splendid  presents  were  received  by  Cortes 
with  great  respect  for  the  monarch  whose  liberality  bestowed 
them.  This  gave  courage  to  the  Mexican  officers,  who  in- 
formed Cortes,  that  though  Montazuma  wished  him  to  accept 
these  presents,  as  a  token  of  his  respect,  yet  he  could  not 
consent  to  have  him  approach,  with  an  armed  force,  nearer  to 
his  capital,  or  remain  any  longer  in  his  dominions.  ".  Inform 
your  master,"  said  Cortes,  in  a  peremptory  tone,  "  that  I  in- 
sist on  my  first  demand,  and  that  I  cannot  return,  without  dis- 
grace, until  I  have  had  an  interview  with  the  sovereign,  whom 
I  was  sent  to  visit  in  the  name  of  my  king."  The  Mexicans 
were  astonished  at  this  boldness,  as  they  had  been  accustomed 
to  see  the  will  of  their  monarch  obeyed,  in  the  most  implicit 
manner.  They  requested  time  to  send  to  the  emperor  once 
more,  with  which  request  the  Spanish  general  complied. 

The  Mexican  monarch  and  his  counsellors  were  greatly  em- 
barrassed and  alarmed,  and  knew  not  what  measures  to  adopt 
to  expel  from  their  country  such  bold  and  troublesome  intru- 
ders.    Their  fears  were  increased  by  the  influence  of  supersti- 
tion, there  having  long  prevailed  a  tradition,  that  their  country 
would  be  invaded  and  overrun  by  a  formidable  race  of  men, 
who  would  come  from  the  regions  towards  the  rising  of  the 
sun.     Montazuma,  and  his  advisers,  dreading  the  consequen- 
ces of  involving  their  country  in  war  with  enemies  who  seem- 
ed to  be  of  a  higher  order  of  beings,  and  to  command  arid  di- 
rect the  elements,  sent  to  Cortes  a  more  positive  command  to 
leave  the  country,  and  most  preposterously  accompanied  this 
with  a  rich  present,  which  rendered  the  Spaniards  the  more 
bent  on  becoming  masters  of  a  country  that  appeared  to  be 
filled  with  the  precious  metals.     When  Teutile  delivered  the 
ultimatum  of  his  sovereign,  together  with  the  rich  presents, 
and  Cortes  again  insisted  on  his  demand  of  seeing  the  empe- 
ror, the  Mexican  abruptly  turned  and  left  the  camp,  with  looks 
and  gestures  which  plainly  shewed  that  his  astonishment  was 
not  greater  than  his  indignation,  at  the  boldness  and  insolence 
of  the  Spanish  general.     This  terminated  all  friendly  inter- 
course between  the  natives  and  the  Spaniards,  and  hostilities 
were  immediately  expected.     At  this  crisis  the  situation  of 
Cortes  was  rendered  more  alarming,  by  disaffection  among  his 
men,  which  had  been  produced  by  the  danger  of  their  situation 
and  the  exertions  of  some  of  the  officers,  who  were  friendly  to 
Valasques.     Diego  de  Ordaz,  the  leader  of  the  malecontents, 
presented  a  remonstrance  to   Cortes,  demanding,  with  great 
boldness,  to  be  conducted  immediately  back  to  Cuba.     Cortes 


24  SKETCH    OF    THE    HISTORY 

listened,  with  attention,  to  the  remonstrance,  and  in  compli- 
ance with  it,  immediately  gave  orders  for  the  fleet  to  be  in 
readiness  to  sail  the  next  day.  This  was  no  sooner  known, 
than  it  produced  the  effect  Cortes  had  foreseen  ;  the  whole 
camp  was  in  coniusion  and  almost  in  mutiny.  All  demanded 
to  see  their  leader,  and  when  Cortes  appeared,  they  asked 
whether  it  was  worthy  Castilian  courage  to  be  daunted  by  the 
first  appearance  of  danger,  and  to  fly  before  the  enemy  ap- 
peared ?  They  insisted  on  pursuing  the  enterprise,  the  value 
of  which  had  vastly  increased  from  what  they  had  seen,  and 
declared  that  they  would  follow  him,  with  alacrity,  through 
every  danger,  to  the  possession  and  conquest  of  those  rich 
countries,  of  which  they  had  seen  such  satisfactory  evidence. 
Cortes,  delighted  with  their  ardour,  declared  that  his  views 
were  the  same  as  their  own,  but  that  he  had  given  the  order 
to  re-embark,  from  a  belief  that  it  was  the  wish  of  all ;  but 
being  happy  to  learn  that  they  were  animated  with  so  noble  a 
spirit,  he  would  resume  the  plan  he  had  at  first  conceived, 
which  was  the  establishment  of  a  settlement  on  the  sea  coast, 
and  then  to  penetrate  into  the  heart  of  the  country  ;  and  he 
had  no  doubt  but  that  he  could  conduct  them  in  a  career  of 
victory  which  would  redound  to  their  glory  and  establish  their 
fortune. 

As  the  first  step,  towards  planting  a  colony,  Cortes  assem- 
bled the  principal  men  of  his  party,  who  proceeded  to  elect  a 
council  of  magistrates,  in  whom  its  government  was  to  be 
vested.  The  magistrates,  chosen,  were  called  by  the  official 
names  which  existed  in  Spain,  and  were  to  exercise  the  same 
jurisdiction  ;  and  all  of  them  were  the  devoted  friends  of  Cor- 
tes. The  council  was  immediately  assembled,  when  Cortes 
appeared  before  them,  with  the  most  profound  respect,  and, 
addressing  the  new  tribunal,  he  informed  them  that  as  the 
sovereign  of  the  country  had  already  shewn  a  hostile  disposi- 
tion, the  security  of  the  colony  depended  upon  military  force, 
and  that,  on  subordination  and  discipline  ;  and  as  his  commis- 
sion, received  from  the  Governor  of  Cuba,  had  long  since 
been  revoked,  his  authority  might  be  questionable  ;  he  there- 
fore resigned  his  commission,  and  observed,  that  though  he 
had  been  accustomed  to  command,  yet  he  should  cheerfully 
obey  whomsoever  they  might  see  fit  to  place  at  the  head  of 
affairs.  As  he  had  arranged  this  matter  with  his  friends  in  the 
council,  the  resignation  of  Cortes  was  accepted,  and  immedi- 
ately he  was  chosen,  by  their  unanimous  voice,  Captain-gen- 
eral of  the  Army,  and  Chief  Justice  of  the  Colony  ;  his  com- 
mission was  made  out  in  the  king's  name,  with  the  most  ample 
powers,  and  was  to  continue  in  force  until  the  royal  pleasure 


OP    SPANISH    AMERICA.  25 

might  be  ascertained.  Before  accepting  this  appointment,  the 
troops  were  consulted,  and  they  unanimously  confirmed  the 
choice,  and  the  air  resounded  with  Cortes'  name,  and  all 
swore  to  shed  the  last  drop  of  their  blood  in  support  of  his 
authority.  Some  of  the  adherents  of  Valasques,  exclaimed 
against  these  illegal  proceedings,  but  Cortes,  by  a  prompt  ex- 
ercise of  authority,  and  by  arresting  and  putting  in  chains 
several  of  the  leaders  of  the  malecontents,  suppressed  a  fac- 
tion, which,  had  it  not  been  timely  checked,  might  have  en- 
dangered all  his  hopes.  Cortes  was  now  placed  in  a  situation 
which  he  had  long  desired,  having  rendered  himself  entirely 
independent  of  the  Governor  of  Cuba. 

Having  employed  some  of  his  officers  to  survey  the  coast,  he 
resolved  to  remove  about  forty  miles  to  the  northward,  where 
there  was  a  more  commodious  harbour,  the  soil  more  fertile, 
and  in  other  respects  a  more  eligible  spot  for  a  settlement. 
He  immediately  marked  out  the  ground  for  a  town,  and  as  av- 
arice and  religious  fanaticism  were  the  two  principles  which 
governed  the  conduct  of  all  the  Spanish  adventurers  in  Ameri- 
ca, he  named  the  town  Fillarica,  de  la  Vera  Cruz — the  rich 
town  of  the  true  cross.  Huts  were  ordered  to  be  erected,  which 
might  afford  a  shelter  ;  these  were  to  be  surrounded  by  fortifi- 
cations and  works  of  sufficient  strength  to  afford  security  from 
the  attack  of  the  natives  ;  and  by  the  united  exertions  of  offi- 
cers and  men,  Cortes  himself  setting  an  example  of  industry 
and  perseverance,  and  with  the  assistance  of  the  natives,  the 
works  were  forwarded  with  astonishing  rapidity.  In  proceed- 
ing to  this  place,  the  Spaniards  had  passed  through  the  coun- 
try of  Zempoalla,  and  had  an  interview  with  several  of  the 
caciques  of  that  nation,  and  learnt,  with  much  satisfaction,  that 
they  were  unfriendly  to  Montezuma,  and  anxious  to  throw  off 
his  yoke ;  he  also  learnt  many  particulars  concerning  that 
monarch ;  that  he  was  a  great  tyrant,  and  oppressed  his  sub- 
jects ;  that  he  had  conquered  some  provinces  and  ruined  oth- 
ers by  excessive  exactions. 

Whilst  employed  in  erecting  the  town,  the  caciques  of  Zera- 
poalla  and  of  Quiabislan,  frequently  visited  them,  which  gave 
Cortes  an  opportunity  to  raise  their  conceptions  of  the  charac- 
ter and  power  of  the  Spaniards  to  the  highest  pitch,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  encourage  their  opposition  to  the  government  of 
Montezuma,  by  assuring  them  of  his  protection.  He  so  far 
succeeded  in  this,  that  when  some  of  Montezuma's  officers 
came  among  them,  to  collect  the  usual  tribute,  they  seized 
them,  and  treated  them  as  prisoners  ;  and,  agreeably  to  their 
barbarous  superstition,  were  preparing  to  sacrifice  them  to 
their  gods,  when  Cortes  interfered,  and  delivered  them  from 

VOL.  I.  3 


26  SKETCH    OF    THE    HISTORY 

their  impending  fate.  This  act  of  open  rebellion  served  to 
attach  these  caciques  firmly  to  the  Spaniards,  as  their  protec- 
tion alone  could  save  them  from  the  dreadful  consequences  of 
Montazuma's  displeasure ;  and  Cortes  soon  succeeded  in  per- 
suading them  to  acknowledge  themselves,  in  a  formal  manner, 
to  be  the  vassals  of  the  Spanish  monarch  Their  example 
was  followed  by  several  other  tribes.  At  this  period,  Cortes 
despatched  a  vessel  to  Spain,  with  a  highly  coloured  descrip- 
tion of  the  country  he  had  discovered,  confirmed  by  many  of 
the  specimens  of  wealth  they  had  received  from  the  natives, 
with  an  account  of  the  progress  he  had  made  in  establishing 
the  Spanish  authority  over  it  ;  he  attempted  to  justify  his 
throwing  off  the  authority  of  Valasques  and  setting  up  for 
himself,  and  requested  a  confirmation  of  his  authority  from 
the  crown. 

Disaffection  again  appeared  among  the  men,  of  a  more 
alarming  character  than  what  had  existed  before,  which,  though 
promptly  suppressed,  filled  the  mind  of  Cortes  with  disquiet- 
ude and  concern,  and  led  him  to  adopt  one  of  the  boldest 
measures  of  which  history  affords  any  account.  He  was  sat- 
isfied, that  from  the  appalling  dangers,  and  magnitude  of  the 
undertaking,  and  from  the  spirit  of  disaffection,  which,  al- 
though suppressed,  still  lurked  among  his  troops,  it  would  be 
impossible  to  maintain  his  authority  over  them,  except  by  cut- 
ting off  the  means  of  return.  After  reflecting  on  the  subject 
with  deep  solicitude,  he  resolved  on  destroying  the  fleet, 
which  would  place  the  Spaniards  in  a  situation,  that  they  must 
conquer  or  perish  ;  and  by  the  most  plausible  and  artful  re- 
presentations, he  succeeded  in  persuading  his  men  to  acquiesce 
in  this  desperate  measure.  With  universal  consent  the  ships 
were  drawn  on  shore,  and  after  being  stripped  of  their  sails, 
rigging,  and  every  thing  of  value,  they  were  broken  to  pieces. 
His  influence  must  have  been  unbounded,  to  be  able  to  per- 
suade his  men  to  an  act,  which  is  unparalleled  in  the  annals  of 
man :  six  hundred  men  voluntarily  cut  off  their  means  of  re- 
turning, and  shut  themselves  up  in  a  hostile  country,  filled 
with  warlike  and  ferocious  inhabitants,  whose  savage  mode  of 
warfare  spared  their  prisoners  only  for  the  torture,  or  to  be  of- 
fered in  sacrifice  to  their  angry  deities. 

Cortes  now  felt  prepared  to  enter  upon  a  career  of  victory 
and  conquest,  in  some  measure  suited  to  his  ambition  and  ra- 
pacity. Having  advanced  to  Zempoalla,  his  zeal  for  religion 
led  him  to  overturn  the  idols  in  the  temples,  and  to  place  a 
crucifix  and  an  image  of  the  Virgin  Mary  in  their  stead ;  which 
rash  step  came  near  blasting  all  his  hopes  in  the  bud.  The 
natives  were  filled  with  horror,  and  were  excited  to  arms  by 


OF    SPANISH    AMERICA.       v  27 

• 

their  priests;  but  Cortes  had  such  an  ascendancy  over  them, 
that  he  finally  pacified  them,  and  restored  harmony. 

He  marched  from  Zempoalla  on  the  sixteenth  of  August, 
with  five  hundred  men,  fifteen  horse,  and  six  field  pieces,  with 
the  intention  of  penetrating  into  the  heart  of  a  great  and  pow- 
erful nation.  The  residue  of  his  men,  most  of  whom  were 
unfit  for  service,  were  left  as  a  garrison  at  Vera  Cruz.  The 
cacique  of  Zernpoalla  supplied  him  with  provisions,  and  with 
two  hundred  Indians,  called  Tamemes,  whose  office  it  was  to 
carry  burdens,  and  do  other  menial  services  ;  together  with 
four  hundred  soldiers,  most  of  whom  were  persons  of  note, 
who  might  be  hostages  for  the  fidelity  of  their  chief.  He  ad- 
vanced near  the  territories  of  the  Tlascalans,  and  having 
learned  that  they  were  implacable  enemies  of  the  Mexicans, 
he  was  in  hopes  to  pass  through  their  country  unmolested. 
He  despatched  four  of  the  Zempoallans  to  request  this  privi- 
lege, and  explain  his  friendly  intentions.  The  Tlascalans,  in- 
stead of  granting  this  request,  seized  the  ambassadors,  and 
were  preparing  to  sacrifice  them  to  their  gods.  Cortes  was 
obliged  to  march  into  their  territories,  and  being  a  fierce  and 
warlike  people,  they  attacked  him  with  great  fury,  and  with 
vast  numbers  ;  and  although  defeated  and  dispersed  in  every 
attack,  they  rallied  and  returned  to  the  conflict,  with  valour 
and  perseverance  far  surpassing  any  thing  which  had  been 
witnessed  in  America.  But  although  the  Tlascalans  brought 
into  the  field  immense  armies,  and  fought  with  courage  and 
perseverance,  they  were  unable  to  stop  the  progress  of  the 
Spaniards — so  great  is  the  advantage  of  discipline  and  sci- 
ence over  barbarian  force  They  suffered  severely  in  the 
successive  conflicts,  and  only  killed  two  horses  and  slightly 
wounded  several  men,  of  the  Spaniards.  Believing  the  Span- 
iards to  be  invincible,  as  the  last  resort  they  consulted  their 
priests  concerning  these  strange  invaders,  and  how  they  could 
be  repelled  ;  and  were  informed  that  they  were  the  offspring 
of  the  Sun,  produced  by  his  creative  energy,  in  regions  of  the 
East,  and  that  they  were  invincible  during  the  day  ;  but  at 
night,  when  deprived  of  the  sustaining  influence  of  the  Sun, 
they  dwindled  into  mere  mortals,  and  could  be  as  easily  over- 
come as  other  men.  This  response  appeared  very  plausible, 
and  immediately  the  Tlascalans  prepared  to  surprise  and  at- 
tack the  Spaniards  in  the  night.  But  Cortes  was  too  vigilant 
to  be  surprized  by  an  Indian  stratagem  ;  his  outposts  observed 
the  movements  of  the  enemy,  and  gave  the  alarm ;  the  troops 
were  immediately  formed,  sallied  out  of  the  camp,  and  clis-" 
persed  them  with  great  slaughter.  The  last  effort,  the  advice 
of  their  priests,  having  completely  failed,  they  became  desi- 


28  SKETCH    OF    THE    HISTORY 

rous  of  ending  hostilities  with  a  race  that  they  regarded  as 
more  than  mortal,  but  were  at  a  loss  whether  they  were  good 
or  evil  beings.  "  If,"  said  they,  "  you  are  divinities  of  a  cruel 
and  savage  nature,  we  present  you  five  slaves,  that  you  may 
eat  their  flesh  and  drink  their  blood ;  if  you  are  mild  deities, 
accept  an  offering  of  incense  and  variegated  plumes ;  if  you 
are  mere  mortals,  here  are  meat,  and  bread  and  fruit,  to  nour- 
ish you."  Peace  was  concluded,  and  the  Tlascalans  acknow- 
ledged themselves  tributary  to  the  Spanish  monarch,  and 
agreed  to  assist  Cortes  in  his  operations  against  the  Mexicans, 
and  he  engaged  to  protect  them  and  their  country.  The  Tlas- 
calans, in  every  adversity  of  fortune,  remained  faithful  to  the 
Spaniards,  and  it  was  to  this  alliance  that  they  were  indebted 
for  success  in  the  conquest  of  the  Mexican  empire 

Cortes  reposed  twenty  days  at  Tlascala,  to  recruit  his  troops, 
who  were  exhausted  with  hard  service,  and  enfeebled  by  the 
distempers  of  the  climate.  During  this  interval  he  obtained 
extensive  information  concerning  the  Mexican  empire  and  the 
character  and  political  condition  of  its  sovereign.  His  troops 
being  recruited,  the  Spanish  general  commenced  his  march 
towards  Mexico,  with  six  thousand  1  lascalan  warriors  added 
to  his  force.  He  directed  his  route  to  Cholula,  a  considerable 
town,  fifteen  miles  distant,  celebrated  for  its  vast  pyramid,  or 
temple,  and  as  being  regarded  as  the  seat  of  their  gods.  Here. 
although  they  had  entered  the  town  without  opposition,  and 
with  much  apparent  respect,  the  Spaniards  soon  discovered  a 
deep  plot  laid  for  their  destruction,  and  having  obtained  satis- 
factory proof,  Cortes  determined  to  make  such  an  example  as 
would  inspire  his  enemies  with  terror.  He  drew  his  forces 
up  in  the  centre  of  the  town,  and  sent  for  most  of  the  magis- 
trates and  chief  citizens,  under  various  pretences,  who,  at  a 
given  signal,  were  seized,  and  then  the  troops  and  the  Tlasca- 
lans fell  on  the  people,  who,  being  deprived  of  their  leaders, 
and  filled  with  astonishment,  dropped  their  arms,  and  remain- 
ed motionless,  without  making  the  least  effort  to  defend  them- 
selves. The  slaughter  was  dreadful ;  the  streets  were  filled 
with  the  dead  and  covered  with  blood;  the  priests  and  some 
of  the  chief  families  took  refuge  in  the  temples  :  these  were 
set  on  fire  and  all  consumed  together.  This  scene  of  carnage 
continued  for  two  days,  during  which,  six  thousand  of  the  na- 
tives perished,  without  the  loss  of  a  single  individual  of  their 
destroyers. 

From  Cholula  it  was  but  sixty  miles  to  Mexico,  and 
Cortes  marched  directly  towards  the  capital  ;  through  -every 
place  he  passed,  he  was  received  as  a  deliverer,  and  heard 
'the  grievances  pf  the  inhabitants,  all  of  which  he  promised  tQ 


OF    SPANISH    AMERICA.  29 

redress.  He  was  highly  gratified  on  perceiving  that  the  seeds 
of  discontent  were  scattered  through  the  empire,  and  not  con- 
fined to  the  remote  provinces.  As  the  Spaniards  approached 
the  capital,  the  unhappy  monarch  was  distracted  with  hopes 
and  fears,  and  knew  not  what  to  do  :  one  day  he  sent  orders 
inviting  them  to  advance  ;  the  next,  commanding  them  to  re- 
tire and  leave  the  country.  As  the  Spaniards  drew  near  to 
the  city,  one  thousand  persons,  of  distinction,  came  out  to  meet 
them,  clad  in  mantles  of  fine  cotton  and  adorned  with  plumes  ; 
each,  in  his  order,  passed  by  and  saluted  Cortes  in  the  manner 
deemed  most  respectful  in  their  country.  At  length  they  an- 
nounced the  approach  of  the  Emperor  himself;  his  retinue 
consisted  of  two  hundred  persons,  dressed  in  uniform,  with 
plumes  and  feathers,  who  marched  two  and  two,  bare-footed, 
with  their  eyes  fixed  on  the  ground  ;  to  these  succeeded  a 
higher  rank,  with  more  showy  apparel.  Montazuma  followed 
in  a  litter,  or  chair,  richly  ornamented  with  gold  and  feathers, 
borne  on  the  shoulders  of  four  of  his  favourites  ;  a  canopy,  of 
curious  workmanship,  was  supported  over  his  head  ;  three 
officers  walked  before  him,  with  gold  rods,  which,  at  given  in- 
tervals, they  raised  up,  as  a  signal  for  the  people  to  bow  their 
heads  and  hide  their  faces,  as  unworthy  to  behold  so  august  a 
sovereign.  As  he  approached  Cortes,  the  latter  dismounted 
and  advanced  in  the  most  respectful  manner  ;  Montazuma  at 
the  same  time  alighted,  and  leaning  on  two  of  his  attendants, 
approached,  with  a  slow  and  statel)  pace,  cotton  cloth  being 
strewed  on  the  ground,  that  he  might  not  touch  the  earth. 
Cortes  saluted  him  with  profound  reverence,  according  to  the 
European  fashion,  and  Montazuma  returned  the  salutation  in 
the  manner  of  his  country  ;  he  touched  with  his  hand  the 
ground  and  then  kissed  it.  This  being  the  mode  of  saluta- 
tion of  an  inferior  to  a  superior,  the  Mexicans  viewed  with 
astonishment  this  act  of  condescension  in  their  monarch, 
whom*  they  had  been  accustomed  to  consider  as  exalted  above 
all  mortals,  and  related  to  the  gods.  Montazuma  having  con-- 
ducted the  Spaniards  to  the  quarters  provided  for  them,  on  re- 
tiring, addressed  Cortes  as  follows  : — "  You  are  now  with 
your  brothers,  in  your  own  house  ;  refresh  yourselves  after 
your  fatigue,  and  be  happy  until  I  return."  The  Spaniards 
were  lodged  in  an  ancient  palace,  surrounded  with  a  wall,  with 
towers  at  proper  distances,  which  would  serve  for  defence  ; 
the  accommodations  were  not  only  sufficient  for  the  Spaniards, 
but  likewise  for  their  Indian  allies. 

Mexico  is  situated  in  an  immense  plain,  or  valley,  surround- 
ed by  lofty  mountains,  and  all  the  waters  that  descend  from 
these  mountains  are  collected  in  several  small  and  two  large 
lakes,  of  about  ninety  miles  in  circumference,  which  comnm-' 

3* 


30  SKETCH    OP  THE  HISTORY 

•v 

nicate  with  each  other.  The  city  is  built  on  the  banks  of  on£ 
of  these  lakes  and  several  adjacent  islands  ;  the  access  to  the 
city  is  by  several  causeways,  of  great  extent ;  at  proper  dis- 
tances are  openings,  with  bridges,  for  the  water  to  pass,  when 
it  overflows  the  flat.  The  houses  of  the  inhabitants  were  lit- 
tle better  than  Indian  huts,  yet  placed  in  regular  order  ;  but 
the  temples  and  other  public  buildings,  the  houses  of  the  mon- 
arch and  persons  of  distinction,  were  of  vast  dimensions, 
and  had  some  claims  to  magnificence,  especially  when  it 
is  considered  that  the  inhabitants  knew  not  the  use  of  iron 
or  edged  tools,  and  were  destitute  of  the  aid  of  domestic  an- 
imals. 

The  Spaniards  soon  became  alarmed  for  their  safety,  as  it 
was  apparent,  that  by  breaking  down  the  bridges  their  retreat 
would  be  cut  on0,  and  they  would  be  shut  up  in  a  hostile  city, 
where  all  their  superiority  in  arms  could  not  prevent  their  be- 
ing overwhelmed  by  the  multitude  of  their  enemies.  Reflect- 
ing, with  deep  concern,  on  his  situation,  Cortes  resolved  on  a 
measure  scarcely  less  bold  and  desperate  than  that  of  des- 
troying his  ships  ;  this  was  to  seize  the  sovereign  of  a  great 
empire,  in  his  own  capital,  surrounded  by  his  subjects,  and  re- 
tain him  as  a  prisoner  in  the  Spanish  quarters.  When  he 
first  proposed  this  measure  to  his  officers,  most  of  them  were 
startled  with  its  audacity  ;  but  he  convinced  them  that  it  was 
the  only  step  that  could  save  them  from  destruction,  and  they 
agreed  instantly  to  make  the  attempt.  At  his  usual  hour  of 
visiting  Montazuma,  Cortes  repaired  to  the  palace,  with  five  o/ 
his  bravest  officers,  and  as  many  trusty  soldiers  ;  thirty  chosen 
men  followed  at  some  distance,  and^ppeared  to  be  sauntering 
along  the  street.  The  rest  of  the  troops,  and  their  allies, 
were  prepared  to  sally  out  at  the  first  alarm.  As  the  Spaniards 
entered,  the  Mexican  officers  retired,  and  Cortes  addressed 
the  monarch  in  a  very  different  tone  from  what  he  had  been 
accustomed  to  do,  and  accused  him  of  being  the  instigator  of 
the  attack  made  on  his  garrison  left  at  Vera  Cruz,  in  which 
several  Spaniards  were  killed,  and  demanded  reparation. 
The  monarch,  filled  with  astonishment  and  indignation,  assert- 
ed his  innocence  with  great  warmth,  and  as  a  proof  of  it,  or- 
dered the  officer,  who  attacked  the  Spaniards,  to  be  brought 
to  Mexico  as  a  prisoner.  Cortes  pretended  that  he  was  satis- 
fied with  this  declaration,  but  said  that  his  soldiers  would  nev- 
er be  convinced  that  Montazuma  did  not  entertain  hostile  in- 
tentions towards  them,  unless  he  repaired  to  the  Spanish 
quarters,  as  a  mark  of  confidence,  where  he  would  be  served 
and  honoured  as  became  a  great  monarch.  The  first  mention 
of  so  strange  and  alarming  a  proposal,  almost  bereft  the  un- 
happy monarch  of  his  senses  ;  he  remonstrated  and  protested 


OP  SPANISH  AMERICA.  31 

against  it ;  the  altercation  became  warm,  and  continued  for 
several  hours,  when  Valasques  de  Leon,  a  daring  and  impetu- 
ous young  officer,  exclaimed,  with  great  vehemence,  "  why 
waste  more  words  or  time  in  vain  1  let  us  seize  him  instantly, 
or  stab  him  to  the  heart."  The  audacity  of  this  declaration,, 
accompanied  with  fierce  and  threatening  looks  and  gestures, 
intimidated  Montazuma,  who  submitted  to  his  fate,  and  agreed 
to  comply  with  their  request.  Montazuma  now  called  in  his 
officers  and  informed  them  of  his  determination  ;  they  heard 
it  with  astonishment  and  grief,  but  made  no  reply.  He  was, 
accordingly,  carried  to  the  Spanish  quarters,  with  great  pa- 
rade, but  bathed  in  tears.  We  consult  history  in  vain  for  any 
parallel  to  this  transaction,  whether  we  consider  the  boldness 
and  temerity  of  the  measure,  or  the  success  with  which  it  was 
executed.* 

Qulpopoca,  the  commander  who  attacked  the  garrison  at 
Vera  Cruz,  his  son,  and  six  of  his  principal  officers,  were  de- 
livered to  Cortes,  to  be  punished  as  he  deemed  proper  ;  and 
after  a  mock  trial,  before  a  Spanish  court  martial,  they  were 
condemned  to  be  burnt  alive,  which  infamous  and  wicked  sen- 
tence was  carried  into  execution,  amidst  vast  multitudes  of 
their  astonished  countrymen,  who  viewed  the  scene  with  silent 
horror. 

Montazuma  remained  in  the  quarters  of  the  Spaniards  for 
six  months,  was  treated  with  apparent  respect  and  served  by 
his  own  officers,  but  strictly  watched  and  kept  in  "  durance 
vile."  During  this  period,  Cortes,  having  possession  of  the 
sovereign,  governed  the  empire  in  his  name  ;  his  commissions 
and  orders  were  issued  as  formerly,  and  strictly  obeyed,  al- 
though it  was  known  that  the  monarch  was  a  prisoner,  in  the 
hands  of  the  invaders  of  the  country.  The  Spaniards  made 
themselves  acquainted  with  the  country,  visited  the  remote 
provinces,  displaced  some  officers,  whom  they  suspected  of 
unfriendly  designs,  and  appointed  others,  more  obsequious  to 
their  will.  And  so  completely  was  the  spirit  of  Montazuma 
subdued,  that  at  length  Cortes  induced  him  to  acknowledge 
himself  as  tributary,  and  a  vassal  of  the  King  of  Castile. 
This  last  and  most  humiliating  condition,  to  which  a  proud 

*  It  is  a  curious  fact,  that  at  the  expiration  of  three  centuries,  an 
attempt  should  be  made  for  the  subjugation  of  Spain,  by  getting1 
possession  of  its  sovereign,  not  dissimilar  to  that  which  had  been 
practised  by  the  officers  of  that  nation  in  America.  In  point  of 
treachery  and  deception,  there  is  little  difference  in  the  two  cases, 
and  it'  the  sins  of  nations  are  visited  upon  their  posterity,  the  designs 
of  Buonaparte  against  Spain  and  its  monarch  might  be  regarded  as 
retributive,  for  the  violence  and  treachery  of  the  Spanish  adventur- 
ers against  the  inoffensive  inhabitants  of  America. 


32  SKETCH  OF    THE  HISTORY 

and  haughty  monarch,  accustomed  to  independent  and  abso- 
lute power,  could  be  reduced,  overwhelmed  him  with  the  deep- 
est distress.  He  called  together  the  chief  men  of  the  empire, 
and  informed  them  of  this  determination,  but  was  scarcely 
able  to  speak,  being  frequently  interrupted  with  tears  and 
groans,  flowing  from  a  heart  rilled  with  anguish. 

Cortes  had  deprived  Montazuma  of  his  liberty,  of  his  wealth, 
and  of  his  empire  ;  he  wished  now  to  deprive  him  of  his  re- 
ligion. But  though  the  unhappy  monarch  had  submitted  to 
every  other  demand,  this  he  would  not  yield  to,  and  Cortes, 
enraged  at  his  obstinacy,  had  the  rashness  to  order  the  idols  of 
the  temples  thrown  down  by  force  ;  but  the  priests,  taking 
arms  in  their  defence  and  the  people  rallying  in  crowds  to 
support  them,  Cortes  was  obliged  to  desist  from  an  act  which 
the  inhabitants  viewed  as  the  highest  sacrilege.  This  rasli 
step  excited  the  bitter  enmity  of  the  priests  against  the  Span- 
iards, who  regarded  them  as  the  enemies  of  the  gods,  who 
\vould  avenge  the  insult  which  had  been  offered  to  them. 
They  roused  the  leading  men,  and  from  this  moment  the  Mex- 
icans began  to  reflect  on  the  means  of  destroying  or  expelling 
such  audacious  and  impious  invaders.  They  held  frequent 
consultations  with  one  another,  and  with  their  captive  prince. 
Being  unwilling  to  have  recourse  to  arms,  if  it  could  be  avoid- 
ed, Montazuma  called  Cortes  into  his  presence,  and  informed 
him,  that  now  all  the  objects  of  his  mission  were  fulfilled,  and 
it  was  the  will,  both  of  the  gods  and  of  his  people,  that  the 
Spaniards  should  instantly  depart  from  the  empire,  and  if  ho 
did  not  comply  with  this  request,  inevitable  destruction  would 
overtake  them.  Cortes,  thinking  it  prudent  not  to  appear  to 
oppose  the  wishes  of  the  Mexicans,  informed  Montazuma  that 
he  was  expecting  soon  to  leave  the  country,  and  had  only  be- 
gan to  make  preparations  for  his  departure. 

Whilst  Cortes  was  deeply  anxious  as  to  his  situation,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  evident  designs  of  the  Mexicans,  a  more 
alarming  danger  threatened  him  from  another  quarter.  Va- 
lasques,  Governor  of  Cuba,  having  obtained  intelligence  of 
Cortes'  proceedings  ;  that  he  had  renounced  all  dependence 
on  his  authority,  was  attempting  to  establish  an  independent 
colony,  and  had  applied  to  the  king  to  confirm  his  acts,  was 
filled  with  indignation,  and  resolved  to  be  avenged  on  the  man 
who  had  so  basely  betrayed  his  confidence  and  usurped  his 
authority.  He  engaged,  with  great  ardour,  in  preparing  an  ex- 
pedition, which  was  destined  to  New  t*pain,  to  arrest  Cortes, 
bring  him  home  in  irons,  and  then  to  prosecute  and  complete 
the  conquest  of  the  country  in  his  own  name.  The  armament 
consisted  of  eighteen  vessels,  having  on  board  eight  hundred 
foot  soldiers  and  eighty  horsemen,  with  a  train  of  twelve  pieces 


OF  SPANISH    AMERICA.  33 

of  cannon.  The  command  of  this  expedition  was  entrusted 
to  Narvaez,  with  instructions  to  seize  Cortes  and  his  principal 
officers,  and  then  complete  the  conquest  of  the  country.  The 
fatal  experience  of  Valasques  had  neither  inspired  him  with 
wisdom  nor  courage  ;  for  he  still  entrusted  to  another  what  he 
ought  to  have  executed  himself. 

When  Cortes  first  heard  that  several  ships  had  appeared  on 
the  coast,  he  supposed  that  it  was  an  expedition  which  his 
messengers  had  procured  to  be  sent  from  Spain  as  a  re-en- 
forcement. But  the  joy  which  this  occasioned  was  soon  turn- 
ed to  sorrow,  when  instead  of  friends,  he  learnt  that  they 
were  new  and  more  formidable  enemies.  In  this  appalling 
exigency,  Cortes  was  greatly  embarrassed  how  to  act ;  he 
finally  concluded  that  he  could  rely  only  on  his  arms,  and 
leaving  one  hundred  and  fifty  men  in  Mexico,  to  guard  the 
royal  prisoner,  and  maintain  his  authority,  he  commenced  his 
march  towards  the  coast,  with  the  residue  of  his  troops,  which, 
after  being  re-enforced  by  the  garrison  at  Vera  Cruz,  did  not 
exceed  two  hundred  and  fifty  men.  Although  sensible  that 
the  dispute  must  be  decided  by  the  sword,  he  despatched  sev- 
eral messengers  to  Narvaez,  to  offer  terms  of  accommodation, 
but  without  success  ;  and  the  demands  of  Narvaez  were  so 
insolent  as  greatly  to  enrage  the  followers  of  Cortes.  Narvaez, 
relying  on  his  superiority  of  numbers,  and  confident  of  victory, 
set  a  price  on  Cortes'  head.  At  length  the  armies  approached 
near  each  other,  and  Narvaez  immediately  marched  out  to 
offer  Cortes  battle.  But  the  latter  prudently  declined  an  en- 
gagement, and  moving  off,  took  a  station  where  he  was  secure 
from  attack.  He  foresaw  that  the  enemy  would  naturally  give 
themselves  up  to  respose,  after  their  fatigues,  and  resolved  to 
surprise  and  attack  them  in  the  night.  His  officers  and  men 
highly  approved  of  this  measure,  it  was  executed  in  a  most 
gallant  manner,  and  with  success  surpassing  the  most  sanguine 
hopes  he  could  have  entertained.  The  sentinels  were  seized, 
and  the  enemy  was  completely  surprised  ;  and  after  a  despe- 
rate but  ineffectual  struggle,  their  commander  having  been 
wounded  and  made  prisoner,  they  surrendered  at  discretion. 
Cortes  treated  the  vanquished  not  as  enemies,  but  as  ,his  coun- 
trymen, and  offered  to  conduct  them  back  to  Cuba,  or  to  re- 
ceive them  into  his  service  on  the  same  terms  as  his  own  sol- 
diers. To  the  latter  propositions  they  all  acceded,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  personal  friends  of  Narvaez,  and  avowed 
the  satisfaction  they  felt  in  following  so  distinguished  a  com- 
mander. Thus  by  the  good  fortune  and  great  abilities  of  the 
conqueror  of  Mexico,  an  event  which  threatened  to  annihi- 
late all  his  hopes,  was  turned  so  greatly  to  his  advantage,  that 
it  afforded  him  a  re-enforcement  exceeding  in  number  the 


34  SKETCH  OF  THE  HISTORY 

troops  he  then  had,  and  placed  him  at  the  head  of  one  thou- 
sand Spaniards.  He  immediately  commenced  a  rapid  march 
back  to  the  capital,  a  courier  having  arrived,  just  after  the  vic- 
tory over  Narvaez,  from  the  garrison  left  there,  with  intelli- 
gence that  the  Mexicans,  immediately  after  the  departure  of 
Cortes,  had  taken  arms  and  attacked  the  Spaniards  in  their 
quarters,  with  great  fury.  This  was  occasioned,  by  the  ra- 
pacity and  violence  of  the  Spaniards,  who  at  a  solemn  festival 
in  honour  of  the  gods  of  the  country  treacherously  murdered 
two  thousand  of  the  nobles,  and  stripped  them  of  their  orna- 
ments. This  outrage  was  committted  under  a  ( pretence  that 
they  had  engaged  in  a  conspiracy  against  the  Spaniards.  Gortes 
found,  as  he  passed  through  the  Mexican  territories,  that  the 
spirit  of  hostility  to  the  Spaniards  was  not  confined  to  the  cap- 
ital ;  the  inhabitants  deserted  the  towns  through  which  he 
passed,  and  removed  all  provisions,  so  that  he  could  scarcely 
subsist  his  troops.  Nothing  but  the  rapidity  of  his  move- 
ments could  have  saved  the  garrison,  as  the  Mexicans  had 
destroyed  the  two  brigantines  which  Cortes  had  built  to  se- 
cure the  command  of  the  lake,  reduced  their  magazines  to 
ashes,  and  were  carrying  on  hostilities  with  such  fury  and  per- 
severance, that  with  all  their  bravery  the  Spaniards  must 
soon  have  been  overwhelmed  by  the  multitude  of  their  en- 
emies. 

But  so  ignorant  were  the  Mexicans  of  the  art  of  war,  and 
so  little  had  they  learnt  from  experience,  that  they  permitted 
Cortes  again  to  enter  the  capital,  when  they  could,  with  the 
greatest  ease,  have  prevented  it,  by  breaking  down  the  bridges 
and  causeways.*  The  garrison  received  their  countrymen 
with  transports  of  joy,  and  Cortes,  feeling  confident  in  his 
strength,  had  the  imprudence  to  throw  off  the  disguise  which 
had  covered  his  actions,  and  to  treat  the  captive  monarch  with 
contempt,  and  scarcely  to  conceal  his  intentions  of  subjuga- 
ting the  country.  This  indiscretion  rekindled  the  flames  of 
war ;  and  emboldened  by  their  success,  which  convinced  them 
that  their  enemies  were  not  invincible,  the  Mexicans  collected 
the  next  day  after  the  arrival  of  Cortes,  in  vast  multitudes,  and 
attacked  the  Spaniards,  in  their  quarters,  with  great  impetuos- 
ity. The  Spanish  leader  and  his  followers  were  astonished  at 

*  This  may  have  been  the  result  of  policy  instead  of  ignorance  ; 
the  Mexicans  may  have  suffered  (he  Spaniards  to  enter  the  city,  for 
the  purpose  of  involving1  them  all,  in  one  common  ruin.  They  are 
represented  to  have  said,  k'  that  having  discovered  our  ene- 
mies are  not  immortal,  we  are  determined  to  complete  their  de- 
struction, although  the  death  of  every  Spaniard,  should  cost  a  thou- 
sand lives.  Afterso  great  a  slaughter,  there  will  still  remain  a  sut-- 
ficient  number,  to  celebrate  the  victory." — HERRERA. 


OP  SPANISH    AMERICA.  35 

the  courage  and  spirit  of  men,  who  had,  for  a  long  time,  sub- 
mitted so  tamely  to  the  yoke  they  had  imposed  on  them, 
Crowded  together  in  the  narrow  streets,  the  Spanish  artillery 
swept  them  away  at  every  discharge,  like  autumnal  leaves  be- 
fore the  blast  ;  yet  they  remained  undaunted,  and  returned  to 
the  asault  with  the  bravery  and  determination  of  men  resolved 
to  conquer  or  die.  The  contest  was  continued  for  several 
days,  with  the  same  spirit  and  perseverance.  At  length  Cortes 
resolved  to  make  a  sally  with  so  strong  a  force,  that  he  hoped 
to  drive  the  enemy  out  of  the  city  and  end  the  contest.  But 
he  was  met  by  so  numerous  a  body  of  men,  who,  animated 
by  their  priests  and  led  on  by  their  nobles,  fought  with  such 
desperation  that  after  a  day  of  incessant  toil,  during  which 
immense  slaughter  was  made  of  the  Mexicans,  and  a  part  of 
the  city  burnt,  the  Spainards  returned  to  their  quarters,  haras- 
sed by  the  multitude  and  perseverance  of  their  enemies  and 
weary  with  their  own  carnage,  without  having  effected  any 
thing  decisive,  or  that  compensated  them  for  the  great  loss  of 
twelve  men  killed  and  sixty  wounded.  Being  now  sensible 
that  he  could  not  maintain  himself,  in  the  midst  of  an  exaspe- 
rated population,  with  a  handful  of  men,  however  great  might 
be  their  superiority,  he  resolved  to  try  what  would  be  the  effect 
of  the  intercession  of  Montazuma,  towards  soothing  the  wrath 
of  his  people.  Accordingly,  the  next  morning,  when  the 
Mexicans  advanced  to  the  attack,  the  wretched  prince,  made 
the  instrument  of  his  own  disgrace  and  of  the  enslavement  of 
his  subjects,  was  constrained  to  ascend  the  battlement,  clad  in 
his  royal  robes,  and  to  address  his  subjects,  and  attempt  to  al- 
lay their  rage  and  dissuade  them  from  hostilities.*  As  he 
came  in  sight  of  the  Mexicans,  their  weapons  dropped  from 
their  hands  .and  they  prostrated  themselves  on  the  earth  ;  but 
when  he  stopped  speaking,  a  deep  and  sullen  murmur  arose 
and  spread  through  the  ranks  ;  reproaches  and  threats  follow- 
ed, and  the  feelings  of  the  people  swelling  in  a  moment  like  a 
sudden  rush  of  waters,  vollies  of  arrows,  stones,  and  every 
missile,  were  poured  upon  the  ramparts,  so  suddenly  and  with 
such  violence,  that  before  the  Spanish  soldiers,  appointed  to 
protect  Montazuma,  could  cover  him  with  their  bucklers,  he 
wa#  wounded  by  the  arrows  and  struck  by  a  stone  on  the  tem- 
ple, which  felled  him  to  the  ground.  This  fail  occasioned  a 
sudden  transition  in  the  feelings  of  the  multitude,  being  hor- 
ror-struck with  the  crime  they  had  committed,  they  threw 

*  Some  authorities  state  (hat  Montazuma  was  induced  to  intercede 
with  his  people,  by  an  assurance  from  Cortes,  that  if  he  would 
pacify  them  he  would  grant  him  his  liberty  and  depart  from  his 
country. 


36  SKETCH  OP  THE  HISTORY 

down  their  arms  and  fled  with  precipitation.  Montazuma  was 
removed  to  his  apartments  by  the  Spaniards,  but  his  proud 
spirit  could  not  brook  this  last  mortification,  and  perceiving 
that  he  was  not  only  the  prisoner  and  tool  of  his  enemies,  but 
the  object  of  the  vengeance  and  contempt  of  his  subjects,  he 
tore  the  bandages  from  his  wounds  in  a  transport  of  feeling, 
and  persisted  in  a  refusal  to  take  any  nourishment,  with  a  firm- 
ness that  neither  entreaties  nor  threats  could  overcome,  and 
thus  terminated  his  wretched  existence.  He  obstinately  re- 
fused, to  the  last,  all  the  solicitations,  accompanied  with  all 
the  terrors  of  future  punishment,  to  embrace  the  Christian 
faith. 

With  the  death  of  Montezuma  ended  all  hopes  ef  pacify- 
ing the  Mexicans,  and  Cortes  was  sensible  that  his  salvation 
depended  on  a  successful  retreat.  The  morning  following  the 
fall  of  their  prince,  the  Mexicans  renewed  the  assault  with 
redoubled  fury,  and  succeeded  in  taking  possession  of  a  high 
temple  which  overlooked  the  Spanish  quarters,  and  greatly 
exposed  them  to  the  missiles  of  the  enemy.  A  detachment 
of  chosen  men,  ordered  to  dislodge  them  were  twice  repul- 
sed, when  Cortes  taking  the  command  himself,  rushed  into 
the  thickest  of  the  combat,  with  a  drawn  sword,  and  by  his 
presence  and  example,  after  a  dreadful  carnage,  the  Spaniards 
made  themselves  masters  of  the  tower  and  set  fire  to  it. 
Cortes  was  determined  to  retreat  from  the  city,  but  was  at 
loss  in  what  way  to  attempt  it,  when  a  private  soldier,  who 
from  a  smattering  of  learning  sustained  the  character  of  an 
astrologer,  advised  him,  to  undertake  it,  in  the  night,  and  as- 
sured him  of  complete  success.  Cortes  the  more  readily  fell 
in  with  this  plan,  as  he  knew  it  was  a  superstitious  principle, 
with  the  Mexicans,  not  to  attack  an  enemy  in  the  night.  The 
arrangements  being  made,  the  Spaniards  moved  forward  about 
midnight  over  the  shortest  causeway,  and  all  was  silence,  until 
they  reached  the  first  breach.  Whilst  they  were  preparing  to 
place  their  bridge  over  the  breach,  at  the  moment,  when  they 
supposed  their  retreat  had  not  been  discovered,  they  were  as- 
tonished with  a  tremendous  shout  accompanied  with  martial 
instruments,  of  an  immense  multitude  which  covered  the 
the  whole  lake.  A  shower  of  arrows  and  stones,  was  followed 
by  a  furious  charge.  The  Spaniards  defended  themselves 
with  their  usual  bravery  ;  but  being  confined  in  a  narrow 
causeway,  and  hemmed  in  on  all  sides  by  the  multitude  of  their 
enemies,  all  the  Mexicans  being  under  arms,  they  were  depri- 
ved of  the  advantages  of  their  superior  discipline  and  skill, 
and  from  the  darkness  of  the  night,  they  could  Scarcely  dis- 
tinguish friends  from  foes  ;  after  sustaining  a  dreadful  conflict 


OF    SPANISH    AMERICA.  3 

attended  with  immense  slaughter,  for  a  considerable  time,  they 
were  thrown  into  confusion.  They  finally  forced  their  way 
over  the  remaining  part  of  the  causeway,  the  dead  bodies 
serving  to  fill  up  the  breaches.  In  the  morning  Cortes  found 
his  troops  reduced  to  half  their  number  and  a  large  portion 
of  these  covered  with  wounds,  and  all  filled  with  grief,  at  the 
loss  of  their  friends  and  companions.  All  the  artillery  was 
lost,  the  ammunition  and  the  baggage,  most  of  the  horses,  and 
nearly  all  their  ill-gotten  gold.  The  last,  which  was  the  chief 
object  of  their  desires,  contributed  greatly  to  their  fatal  dis- 
aster, as  the  soldiers,  were  so  encumbered  with  it  as  greatly  to 
impede  their  exertions.  More  than  two  thousand  of  the  Tlas- 
calans  were  killed. 

The  Spaniards  now  commenced  their  march  for  Tlascala,  and 
for  six  days  continued  it  without  respite,  through  swamps,  and 
over  mountains,  harrassed  by  the  Mexicans,  at  a  distance,  and 
sometimes  closely  attacked.  On  the  sixMi  day,  they  approach- 
ed near  to  Otumba,  and  discovered  numerous  parties  moving 
in  various  directions.  Their  interpreter  informed  them,  that 
they  often  exclaimed  with  exultation,  "Go  on  robbers  ;  go  to 
the  place  where  you  shall  quickly  meet  the  fate  due  to 
your  crimes."  The  Spaniards  continued  their  march  until 
they  reached  the  summit  of  a  mountain,  when  an  extensive 
valley  opened  to  their  astonished  visions,  covered  with  an  in- 
numerable multitude,  which  explained  the  meaning  of  what 
they  had  just  seen  and  heard.  Tne  vast  number  of  their  ene- 
mies and  the  suddenness  with  which  they  had  appeared,  appal- 
led the  stoutest  hearts,  and  despair  was  depicted  in  every 
countenance.  But  Cortes,  who  alone  was  unshaken,  inform- 
ed them  that  there  remained  but  an  alternative,  to  conquer  or 
perish,  'and  immediately  led  them  to  the  charge.  The  Mexi- 
cans waited  their  approach  with  courage  ;  but  so  great  is  the 
superiority  of  discipline  and  military  science,  over  brute  force, 
that  the  small  battalion  of  the  Spaniards  made  an  irresistable 
impression,  and  forced  its  way  through  the  armed  multitude. 
Although  the  Mexicans  were  dispersed  and  obliged  to  give 
way  wherever  the  Spaniards  approached,  yet  as  they  retreated 
in  one  quarter,  they  advanced  in  another,  so  that  the  Span- 
iards were  constantly  surrounded,  and  had  become  nearly  ex- 
hausted by  their  own  carnage.  At  this  crisis,  Cortes,  observ- 
ing the  standard  of  the  Mexican  empire,  and  recollecting  to 
have  heard  that  on  the  fate  of  that  depended  the  success  of  a 
battle,  assembled  some  of  his  bravest  officers  and  rushed, 
with  great  impetuosity,  through  the  crowd^  and  by  the  stroke 
of  a  lance  wounded  the  general  who  held  it,  and  threw  him  to 
the  ground ;  whereupon  one  of  his  officers  dismounted,  stab- 

VOL.  I.  4 


38  SKETCH   OF    THE    HISTORY 

bed  him  to  the  heart,  and  secured  the  imperial  standard,  Th& 
fall  of  their  leader  and  standard  had  an  instantaneous  and 
magical  effect ;  every  tie  which  held  them  together  seemed 
dissolved  ;  a  universal  panic  prevailed,  their  weapons  drop- 
ped from  their  hands,  and  they  all  fled  with  precipitation  to 
the  mountains,  leaving  every  thing  behind  them.  The  spoil 
which  the  Spaniards  collected,  compensated  them,  in  some 
measure,  for  their  loss  in  retreating  from  the  Mexican  capital. 
The  next  day  they  entered  with  joy  the  territories  of  Tlas- 
cala,  and,  notwithstanding  their  dreadful  calamities,  they  were 
'kindly  received  by  their  allies,  whose  fidelity  was  not  at  all 
shaken  by  the  declining  condition  of  the  Spanish  power.  Not- 
withstanding all  his  misfortunes,  Cortes  did  not  abandon  his 
plan  of  conquering  the  Mexican  Empire.  He  obtained  some 
ammunition  and  three  field  pieces  from  Vera  Cruz,  and  de- 
spatched four  of  the  vessels  of  Narvaez's  fleet,  to  Hispaniola 
and  Jamaica,  to  obtain  ammunition  and  military  stores,  and 
procure  adventurers.  Sensible  that  he  could  do  nothing 
against  Mexico  without  the  command  of  the  lake,  he  set 
about  preparing  the  timber  and  other  materials  for  twelve  bri- 
gantines  ;  which  were  to  be  carried  by  land  to  the  lake  in  pie- 
ces, and  there  put  together  and  launched.  These  measures, 
which  disclosed  his  intentions,  occasioned  disaffection  again 
to  appear  among  his  troops ;  which,  with  his  usual  address, 
but  not  without  difficulty,  he  succeeded  in  suppressing.' 

Whilst  anxiously  waiting  for  the  return  of  his  ships,  two 
vessels  which  had  been  sent  out  by  Valasques  to  re-enforce 
Narvaez,  were  decoyed  into  Vera  Cruz,  and  the  crews  and 
troops  induced  to  follow  the  fortunes  of  Cortes  ;  and  soon  af- 
ter several  vessels  put  in  there,  and  the  seamen  and  soldiers 
on  board,  were  also  persuaded  to  join  the  Spanish  adventurer, 
"by  which  means  Cortes  received  a  re-enforcement  of  one  hun- 
dred and  eighty  men,  and  twenty  horses.  He  now  dismissed 
such  of  Narvaez's  men  as  served  with  reluctance,  after  which 
he  mustered  five  hundred  and  fifty  foot  soldiers,  and  forty 
horsemen,  and  possessed  a  train  of  nine  field  pieces.  With 
this  force,  and  ten  thousand  Tlascalans  and  other  friendly 
Indians,  he  set  out  once  more  for  the  conquest  of  the  Mexi- 
can Empire.  He  began  his  march  towards  the  capital,  on 
the  28th  of  December,  1520,  six  months  after  his  disastrous 
retreat. 

Although  the  Mexicans,  aware  of  his  intensions,  had  made 
preparations  to  obstruct  his  progress,  he  continued  his  march 
without  much  difficulty,  and  took  possession  of  Tezeuco,  the 
second  town  in  the  empire,  situated  on  the  lake,  about  twenty 
miles  from  Mexico.  Here  he  established  his  head-quarters, 


OP  SPANISH    AMERICA.  39 

as  it  was  the  most  suitable  place  to  launch  his  brigantines  ;  and 
during  the  delay  which  that  object  required,  he  subjugated  a 
number  of  towns  on  the  lake,  and  thus  circumscribed  the 
Mexican  Empire.  At  this  time,  when  his  prospects  were 
more  flattering  than  they  had  been  at  any  other,  all  his  hopes 
were  exposed  to  be  blasted,  by  an  alarming  conspiracy,  which 
aimed  at  the  life  of  Cortes  himself,  and  all  his  principal  offi- 
cers. On  the  very  day  on  which  it  was  to  have  been  carried 
into  execution,  one  of  the  conspirators  went  privately  to  his 
general  and  reveal;  d  it.  Villefragria,  the  ringleader,  was  sei- 
zed and  executed.  The  materials  for  the  brigantines  being 
completed,  Cortes  despatched  a  detachment  of  his  troops,  as 
a  convoy  to  eight  thousand  Tamemes,  an  inferior  class  of  men, 
used  for  carrying  burdens  in  the  lieu  of  animals,  who  had  been 
furnished  by  the  Tlascalans.  Fifteen  thousand  Tlascalari 
warriors  also  accompanied  them  for  their  defence.  This  no- 
vel and  immense  convoy  arrived  safe  at  Tezeuco ;  and  about 
the  same  time  the  ships  returned  from  Hispaniola,  with  two 
hundred  troops,  eighty  horses,  two  battering  cannon,  and  a 
supply  of  ammunition  and  arms.  These  events  elevated  the 
hopes  of  Cortes  and  his  followers,  and  gave  increased  activity 
to  their  exertions.  On  the  28th  of  April,  all  the  brigantines 
were  launched,  with  great  ceremony — all  the  troops,  and  those 
of  their  allies,  being  drawn  up  on  the  banks  of  the  canal,  and 
mass  and  religious  exercises  were  performed.  As  they  fell 
into  the  lake  from  the  canal,  Father  Olmedo,  the  chaplain, 
gave  to  each  its  name,  and  his  benediction.  The  joy  of  the 
Spaniards  was  excessive,  and  repeated  shouts  resounded  over 
the  still  waters  of  the  lake,  now  for  the  first  time  honoured 
with  a  fleet,  after  being  for  centuries  only  skimmed  by  the  light 
canoes  of  the  savage. 

As  the  vessels  entered  the  lake,  they  hoisted  sail,  and  bore 
away  before  the  wind ;  and  were  viewed  by  the  Spaniards  and 
their  Indian  allies,  with  transports  of  joy,  whilst  the  Mexicans 
beheld  them  with  astonishment  and  dismay. 

On  the  death  of  Montazuma,  the  Mexican  chiefs  elevated 
to  the  throne  Quetlavaca,  his  brother,  whose  bravery  and  hos- 
tility to  the  Spaniards  were  signalized  by  those  fierce  attacks 
upon  their  invaders,  which  drove  them  from  the  capital. 
Whilst  actively  engaged  in  preparing  to  defend  his  capital  from 
the  second  attack  of  Cortes,  he  was  cut  off  by  the  small  pox, 
which  fatal  disease  was  then  ravaging  the  empire,  and  was  one 
of  the  dreadful  calamities  brought  upon  it  by  the  Europeans. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Guatimozin,  the  nephew  and  son-in-law 
of  Montazuma  ;  his  distinguished  reputation  for  courage,  and 
2s  a  commander,  secured  him  the  unanimous  support  of  his 


10  SKETCH    OF    THE   HISTORY 

Countrymen,  at  this  alarming  crisis.  Although  appalled  at  tli& 
formidable  aspect  of  the  brigantines,  small  and  clumsy  as 
they  were,  Guatamozin  resolved  to  hazard  an  attempt  to  des- 
troy them.  With  a  vast  multitude  of  canoes,  which  covered 
the  whole  lake,  the  Mexicans  fearlessly  advanced  to  engage 
the  brigantines,  which,  in  consequence  of  a  dead  calm,  were 
scarcely  able  to  move  ;  but,  fortunately  for  the  Spaniards,  a 
breeze  sprung  up,  and  the  vessels  spreading  sail,  broke  through 
and  overset  the  canoes,  and  dispersed  the  whole  armament 
without  scarcely  an  effort,  and  with  great  slaughter.  This 
action  convinced  the  Mexicans,  that  the  superiority  of  the 
Spaniards  was  greater  on  the  water  than  on  the  land,  and  they 
made  no  farther  attempt  to  dispute  with  them  the  dominion  of 
the  lake.  Being  master  of  the  lake,  Cortes  carried  on  the 
siege  with  great  activity ;  he  divided  his  forces  and  attacked 
the  city  in  three  different  quarters,  the  brigantines  being  form- 
ed into  three  squadrons  to  cover  the  troops  at  each  of  the 
points  of  attack.  For  more  than  a  month  the  siege  continued, 
and  was  a  succession  of  sharp  and  obstinate  conflicts  ;  during 
the  day,  the  Spaniards  forced  their  way  over  all  the  obstruc- 
tions which  the  enemy  had  interposed  on  the  causeways  to 
stop  their  progress,  and  passed  the  trenches  and  canals  where 
the  bridges  were  broken  down,  and  sometimes  penetrated  in- 
to the  city ;  but  at  night,  retired  to  their  former  positions,  as 
from  the  small  number  of  their  troops  they  deemed  it  unsafe 
to  remain  within  the  city,  where  they  might  be  overwhelmed 
by  the  multitude  of  their  foes.  During  the  night,  the  Mexi- 
cans repaired  what  the  Spaniards  had  destroyed  in  the  course 
of  the  day,  and  the  contest  was  thus  continued,  with  the  des- 
perate bravery  and  perseverance,  on  both  sides,  of  men  deter- 
mined to  conquer  or  die.  At  length,  Cortes,  astonished  at  the 
obstinacy  of  the  Mexicans,  resolved  to  attempt,  by  a  great  and 
bold  effort,  to  get  possession  of  the  city.  He  made  a  general 
assault  at  the  three  points  of  attack,  with  his  whole  force,  and 
pushing  on  with  irresistible  impetuosity,  they  forced  their  way 
over  one  barricade  after  another,  and  penetrated  into  the  city. 
But,  the  officer,  ordered  to  fill  up  the  trenches  in  the  cause- 
ways, and  to  keep  the  command  of  the  same,  to  secure  a  re- 
treat in  case  it  should  become  necessary,  having  neglected  that 
duty  and  joined  in  the  conflict,  Guatimozin  availing  himself  of 
this  mistake,  suffered  the  Spaniards  to  advance  into  the  heart 
of  the  town  ;  when  the  sound  of  the  great  drum  of  the  tem- 
ple, consecrated  to  the  god  of  war,  was  heard  as  a  signal  for 
action  ;  the  whole  population  of  the  city  rushed  with  frantic 
fury  to  the  scene  of  strife,  and  fell  on  their  invaders  with  irre^ 
sistable  impetuosity  ;  the  Spaniards  at  first  retired  slowly  and 


OF    SPANISH    AMERICA*  41 

ill  order;  but  when  they  arrived  at  the  breach  in  the  cause- 
way, where  the  Mexicans  had  concentrated  a  large  force  to 
intercept  their  retreat,  being  pressed  on  all  sides,  they  were 
thrown  into  confusion,  and  horse  and  foot,  Spaniards  and 
'Tlascalans,  plunged  promiscuously  into  the  gap.  The  Mexi- 
cans, encouraged  by  success,  pressed  furiously  upon  them  from 
all  quarters  ;  their  canoes  covered  the  lake,  and  the  causeway 
both  before  and  behind,  was  blocked  up  with  their  warriors. 
After  incredible  exertions,  the  Spaniards  forced  their  way 
though  the  multitude  of  their  enemies,  with  the  loss  of  more 
than  twenty  killed,  and  forty  tak^  n  prisoners.  These  last  un- 
happy victims  were  sacrificed,  the  following  night,  to  the  god 
of  war,  as  a  horrid  triumph  ;  the  whole  city  was  illuminated, 
and  the  Spaniards  were  filled  with  grief  and  horror  by  the 
shrieks  of  their  companions,  about  to  be  immolated  to  the  di- 
abolical deities  of  their  enemies.  The  heads  of  the  victims 
were  sent  to  the  different  provinces,  and  exhibited,  with  a 
declaration  that  the  god  of  war,  appeased  by  the  blood  of  their 
enemies,  had  declared  that  in  eight  days  their  invaders  should 
be  destroyed,  and  peace  restored  to  the  empire.  The  success 
of  the  Mexicans,  together  with  this  confident  prediction,  had  a 
magic  effect,  and  the  people  flocked  in  from  all  quarters,  to 
assist  in  conquering  a  hated  foe,  whom  the  gods  had  decreed 
to  destroy.  Cortes  stationed  his  troops  under  the  protection 
of  his  ships,  which  kept  the  enemy  at  a  distance  until  the  ei^ht 
days  had  expired ;  and  such  was  the  influence  of  superstition 
that  most  of  his  allies  deserted  him  ;  but  after  the  fatal  period 
had  elapsed,  and  the  Spaniards  still  being  safe,  they  were 
ashamed  of  their  credulity,  and  returned  to  their  stations. 

Although.  Cortes  now  found  himself  in  possession  of  a  nu- 
merous force  of  Indians,  yet  past  experience  taught  him  to 
adopt  a  new  and  more  safe  mode  of  carrying  on  the  siege. 
He  made  slow  but  gradual  advances  ;  his  Indian  allies  repair- 
ed the  causeways  as  he  advanced,  and  as  the  Spaniards  got 
possession  of  any  part  of  the  city,  their  allies  were  employed 
in  levelling  the  houses  to  the  ground.  They  thus  compelled 
the  Mexicans  daily  to  retire,  and  gradually  circumscribed  the 
limits  of  the  town  The  immense  multitude  which  had  as- 
sembled in  the  city,  consumed  the  supplies  of  provisions, 
and  they  were  threatened  with  the  horrors  of  famine  within, 
whilst  assailed  by  the  enemy  from  without. 

Having  the  command  of  the  lake,  and  from  the  numerous 
body  of  his  Indian  allies,  Cortes  was  enabled  to  cut  off  all  com- 
munications with  the  city.  Three  quarters  of  it  were  reduced 
to  ashes,  when  at  length  the  three  divisions  of  the  Spaniards 
penetrated  into  the  great  central  square,  and  established  a  se- 

4* 


42  SKETCH    OF    THE   HISTORY 

cure  position.  The  fate  of  the  city  was  now  decided,  as*  it 
was  evident  that  what  remained,  being  assailed  from  more  ad- 
vantageous stations,  could  hold  out  but  a  short  time.  At  this 
crisis,  the  chiefs  and  nobles  prevailed  on  Gautimozin  to  retire 
to  the  provinces  and  attempt  to  arouse  the  people  ;  and  to  fa- 
cilitate his  escape  they  opened  a  negociation  for  peace  with 
Cortes  ;  but  the  latter,  too  vigilant  to  be  deceived,  had  given 
strict  orders  to  watch  the  lake  and  suffer  no  canoes  to  pass. 
The  officer,  to  whom  this  duty  was  assigned,  observing  several 
large  canoes  crossing  the  lake  with  rapidity,  ordered  a  swift- 
sailing  brigantine  in  pursuit,  which,  as  it  neared  them,  was 
about  firing  when  all  the  rowers  in  an  instant  dropped  their 
oars,  threw  down  their  arms,  and  rising  up,  beseeched  them  nofc 
to  fire,  as  the  emperor  was  on  board.  Gautimozin  surrender- 
ed himself,  with  dignity,  and  only  requested  that  no  insult 
might  be  offered  to  the  empress,  or  his  children.  When 
brought  into  the  presence  of  Cortes,  he  behaved  with  a  de- 
gree of  composure  and  dignity  that  would  have  done  honour 
to  any  monarch  on  earth.  Addressing  himself  to  Cortes,  he 
said,  "  I  have  done  what  became  a  monarch;  I  have  defended 
my  people  to  the  last  extremity.  Nothing  now  remains  but  to 
die.  Take  this  dagger,"  (laying  his  hand  on  one  which  Cortes 
wore)  "  plant  it  in  my  breast,  and  put  an  end  to  a  life  which 
can  no  longer  be  of  any  use."  Previous  to  his  leaving  the 
city  he  had  caused  all  his  treasures  to  be  thrown  into  the  lake. 

The  capture  of  the  sovereign  terminated  the  struggle,,  and 
the  city  and  the  empire  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conquerors. 
The  siege  had  continued  seventy-five  days,  and  was  by  far  the 
nlost  extraordinary  .  and  memorable  military  effort  in  the  con- 
quest of  America.  The  exertions,  bravery,  perseverance,  and 
astonisning  exploits  of  Cortes  and  his  followers,  are  unexam- 
pled ;  yet,  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  Mexican  empire, 
comprising  a  vast  population,  in  a  considerable  state  of  im- 
provement, was  conquered  by  a  few  hundred  Spaniards  :  its 
conquest  was  effected  by  internal  disaffections  and  divisions, 
and  the  jealousy  of  its  neighbours,  who  dreaded  its  power,  the 
oppression  of  which  they  had  often  experienced. 

The  excessive  joy  of  the  Spaniards  was  changed  to  mur- 
murs, when  they  learnt  the  small  amount  of  treasure  which 
had  fallen  into  their  hands  ;  and  such  was  their  rage  and  dis- 
appointment, that  Cortes  was  obliged  to  give  way  to  it,  and 
suffer  Gautimozin  to  be  put  to  the  torture  to  compel  him  to 
discover  the  royal  treasures  which  they  supposed  he  had  con- 
cealed. And  with  such  dignity  and  fortitude  did  he  endure  the 
torture,  that  when  the  anguish  and  pain  was  at  its  height,  and  his 
fellow-sufferer  seemed  to  ask  permission  to  purchase  relief  by 


OF     SPANISH    AMERICA.  43 

revealing  what  he  knew,  the  royal  victim,  with  a  look  of  au- 
thority and  scorn,  reproached  him  for  his  weakness,  by  asking, 
"  Am  /  now  reposing  on  a  bed  of  roses  1"  After  this  reproof, 
his  fellow-sufferer  remained  silent,  and  expired  under  the  tor- 
ture of  men  calling  themselves  Christians.  Cortes,  ashamed 
of  what  he  had  done,  interfered  and  rescued  the  royal  victim 
from  the  hands  of  his  persecutors. 

On  the  10th  of  August,  1519,  Ferdinand  Maggellan  sailed 
from  Seville  with  five  ships  and  two  hundred  and  thirty-four 
men,  on  a  voyage  of  discovery.  He  discovered  and  entered 
the  spacious  bay  forming  the  mouth  of  the  River  de  la  Plata, 
supposing  it  to  be  a  strait,  or  communication  leading  into  the 
Southern  Ocean ;  and  proceeding  south  he  entered  the  strait 
that  bears  his  name,  and  after  sailing  twenty  days  in  that  wind* 
ing  channel,  the  great  Southern  Ocean  presented  itself  to  his 
astonished  vision,  and  with  tears  of  joy  he  returned  thanks  to 
Heaven.  Pursuing  his  course  towards  the  north-west,  he 
sailed,  for  three  months  and  twenty  days,  without  discovering 
land  ;  and  from  the  uninterrupted  course  of  fair  weather,  and 
the  favourableness  of  the  winds,  he  gave  that  ocean  the  name 
of  Pacific,  which  it  has  ever  since  retained.  He  discovered 
numerous  islands,  and  among  others  the  Philippines.  In  a 
quarrel  with  the  natives,  at  one  of  these  islands,  he  was  un- 
fortunately killed.  The  expedition,  after  the  death  of  its 
commander,  discovered  the  great  island  of  Borneo,  and  at, 
length  arrived  at  one  of  the  Molucca  Isles,  to  the  no  small 
astonishment  of  the  Portuguese,  who  could  not  conceive  how 
the  Spaniards,  by  sailing  in  a  westerly  direction,  had  arrived 
at  an  island,  which  they  discovered  by  sailing  in  a  directly  op- 
posite course.  From  this  place  they  sailed  by  the  way  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  returned  home,  after  a  voyage  of 
three  years  and  twenty-eight  days,  having  sailed  round  the 
globe  for  the  first  time. 

The  accounts  of  Cortes'  victories  and  conquests,  which 
were  sent  to  Spain,  filled  his  countrymen  with  admiration,  and 
excited  the  highest  expectations  with  the  people  and  the  gov- 
ernment. Charles  V.  who  had  succeeded  to  the  throne,  ap- 
pointed Cortes  Captain-general  of  New  Spain  ;  and  even  be- 
fore he  had  received  any  legal  sanction,  he  assumed  the  powei* 
of  governor,  and  adopted  measures  to  secure  the  vast  country 
he  had  conquered  to  his  sovereign,  as  a  colony  of  Spain.  He 
determined  to  rebuild  the  capital,  and  there  to  establish  the 
seat  of  his  government ;  he  commenced  the  work  on  an  ex- 
tended plan,  and  laid  the  foundations  of  the  most  magnificent 
city  in  the  asw  world.  Re  caused  examinations  to  be  made 


44  SKETCH    OF    THE    HISTORY 

for  mines,  opened  some,  and  encouraged  his  countrymen  tfr 
settle  in  the  remote  provinces. 

The  Mexicans,  conquered  and  degraded  as  they  were,  did 
not  quietly  submit  to  their  new  masters ;  but  aroused  by  op- 
pression or  despair,  they  often,  with  more  courage  than  discre- 
tion, rushed  to  arms,  and  were  not  only  defeated  in  every 
contest,  but  the  Spaniards,  regarding  these  attempts  to  regain 
their  liberty,  as  rebellion  against  their  lawful  sovereign,  put 
the  caciques  and  nobles,  who  fell  into  their  hands,  to  death, 
and  reduced  the  common  people  to  the  most  humiliating  and 
degrading  servitude.  The  massacres  and  cruelties  of  the 
Spaniards  are  almost  incredible.  "  In  almost  every  district  of 
the  Mexican  empire  the  progress  of  the  Spanish  arms  is  mark- 
ed with  blood.  In  the  country  of  Panuco,  sixty  caciques,  or 
leaders,  and  four  hundred  nobles  were  burnt  at  one  time  ; 
and  to  complete  the  horror  of  the  scene,  the  children  and  re- 
lations of  the  wretched  victims  were  assembled  and  compel- 
led to  be  spectators  of  their  dying  agonies."*  This  sanguin- 
ary scene  was  succeeded  by  another,  if  possible  still  more 
revolting  and  horrible  to  the  natives.  On  suspicion,  or  pre- 
tence, that  Gautimozin  had  conspired  against  the  Spanish  au- 
thority, and  excited  his  former  subjects  to  take  up  arms,  the 
unhappy  monarch,  with  the  caciques  of  Tezeuco  and  Tacuba, 
the  two  most  distinguished  personages  in  the  empire,  without 
even  the  formality  of  a  trial,  were  brought  to  a  public  and  ig- 
nominious execution,  and  hanged  on  a  gibbet,  in  the  presence 
of  their  countrymen,  who  witnessed  the  scene  with  indescriba- 
ble horror,  as  they  had  long  been  accustomed  to  reverence 
their  sovereign  with  homage  and  awe,  scarcely  less  profound 
than  that  offered  to  their  gods. 

For  all  his  toils  and  sufferings,  his  splendid  achievements, 
his  extensive  conquests,  and  all  the  cruelties  and  crimes  he 
committed  for  his  sovereign  Cortes  received  the  reward  which 
usually  attends  those  who  perform  great  services  for  their 
country  :  he  was  envied,  calumniated,  suspected,  recalled, 
deprived  of  his  authority,  and  of  all  benefit  from  his  exertions, 
except  the  glory  of  being  the  conqueror  of  Mexico,  and  the 
oppressor  and  destroyer  of  a  great  and  once  prosperous  and 
happy  nation. 

*  Robertson. 


OF    SPANISH    AMERICA,  45 


CHAPTER  III. 

Expedition  for  the  discovery  of  Peru — The  Coast  of  Chile  and 
Peru  discovered — Pizarro  visits  Spain — returns  and  Jits  out 
another  expedition  for  the  conquest  of  the  country — The  first 
colony  in  Peru  planted — The  Incas  of  the  country — Pizarro 
marches  into  the  interior  and  captures  the  Inca — he  offers  to 
Jill  a  room  with  gold  for  his  ransom— is  put  to  death — The 
Peruvians  determine  to  expel  their  invaders — they  besiege  Ctts- 
co — Action  between  Pizarro  and  Almagro — Expedition  of 
Gdnsalo  Pizarro — the  incredible  sufferings  of  his  men — Orel- 
lana,  one  of  his  officers,  with  fifty  men,  deserts- — sails  down  the 
Amazon  and  enters  the  Atlantic  Ocean — Distress  ofGonsalo-^- 
he  returns  to  Quito — Vaca  de  Castro  appointed  Governor  of 
Peru — Insurrection  among  the  Spaniards  against  Pizarro — 
he  is  assassinated  in  his  palace— -Vela  appointed  governor — * 
bloody  action  between  him  and  Gonsalo  Pizarro— —Gasca  sent 
from  Spain,  as  governor — his  pacific  measures — Pizarro  re- 
fuses to  submit — is  defeated  and  beheaded — Gasca  returns  to 
Spain. 

THE  success  c-f  Cortes,  and  other  Spanish  adventurers  in 
America,  stimulated  the  ambition  of  their  countrymen,  and 
gave  additional  impulse  to  the  spirit  of  enterprise  and  discov- 
ery, which  .was  the  prevailing  passion  of  the  day.  The  discov- 
eries and  conquests  which  had  been  made,  and  the  settlements 
that  had  been  established,  served  both  as  incentives  and  facil- 
ities to  new  and  bolder  enterprises.  The  settlement  at  Pana- 
ma, on  the  western  coast  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  greatly 
facilitated  the  plans  of  adventurers  in  that  quarter,  and  became, 
in  some  measure,  the  parent  of  most  of  the  early  settlements 
on  the  coast  of  the  Southern  Ocean. 

Soon  after  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  about  the  year  1524, 
three  obscure  individuals,  residing  at  Panama,  formed  a  plan 
for  discovering  and  conquering  the  rich  countries  to  the  east- 
ward of  that  colony,  which  had  long  attracted  the  attention  of 
adventurers.  These  individuals  were  Francisco  Pizarro,  tho 
natural  son  of  a  Spanish  gentleman,  a  soldier,  and  one  of  the 
early  adventurers  to  the  new  world  ;  Diego  de  Almagro,  also 
a  soldier,  and  whose  origin  was  equally  humble  with  that  of  his 


46  SKETCH    OF    THE    HISTORY 

associate,  one  being  a  bastard  and  the  other  a  foundling  ;  arid" 
Hermando  Luque,  an  ecclesiastic,  who  was  employed  in  the 
double  capacity  of  priest  and  schoolmaster  at  Panama.  The 
last,  by  some  means  not  known,  had  acquired  considerable 
wealth,  but  his  two  associates  possessed  but  little  ;  each,  how- 
ever, was  to  embark  his  whole  fortune  in  the  enterprise,  to- 
gether with  all  his  hopes.  The  contract  between  them  was 
solemnized  by  religious  sanctions,  although  its  object  was  ra- 
pine and  murder. 

With  all  their  united  means  and  exertions  they  were  ena- 
bled only  to  fit  out  one  small  vessel,  with  one  hundred  and 
twelve  men,  Pedrarias,  the  governor  of  Panama,  having  first 
authorized  the  expedition.  This  was  commanded  by  Pizarro, 
and  afterwards  Almagro  sailed  with  seventy  men  more,  as  a 
re- enforcement.  Such  were  the  men  and  such  the  means  by 
which  one  of  the  most  extensive  empires  on  the  globe  was  to 
be  conquered — an  empire,  where  civilization  and  the  arts  had 
made  great  progress,  and  whose  government  was  not  only  es- 
tablished on  divine  authority,  but  its  sovereign  claimed  rela- 
tionship with  the  gods,  and  was  venerated  by  his  subjects 
accordingly. 

Their  first  expedition  was  product!  v  ,  of  little  more  advan- 
tage than  the  discovery  of  the  opulent  country  of  which  they 
were  in  pursuit,  whose  existence  had  become  a  matter  of  doubt, 
in  consequence  of  the  failure  of  several  attempts  at  discovery. 
After  having  touched  at  various  places,  and  suffered  incredible 
hardships,  they  discovered  the  coast  of  Chile,  and  landed  at 
Tacamez,  south  of  the  river  Emeraulds,  where  they  beheld, 
with  pleasure,  a  fertile  and  inviting  country,  very  different  from 
any  they  had  discovered  in  the  Southern  Ocean.  The  coun- 
try was  cultivated,  and  the  natives  were  clad  in  garments 
of  white  cotton  stuffs,  and  adorned  with  trinkets  of  gold  and 
silver.  Although  delighted  with  these  appearances,  the  ad- 
venturers did  not  presume  to  invade  so  populous  a  country 
with  a  handful  of  men,  worn  out  with  hardships  and  wasted  by 
disease.  They  stopped  at  the  island  of  Gallo,  and  Almagro 
returned  to  Panama  to  obtain  ^-enforcements,  leaving  Pizar- 
ro, with  part  of  the  men.  Pedro  de  los  Rios,  having  succeed- 
^ed  Pedrarias,  as  governor  of  the  colony,  and  apprehending  that 
the  settlement  of  Panama  would  be  weakened  and  even  ex- 
posed, by  sending  off  adventurers  in  a  distant  and  uncertain 
enterprise,  he  prohibited  Almagro  from  raising  more  recruits, 
and  despatched  a  vessel  to  bring  back  Pizarro  and  his  followers, 
who  were  left  behind.  When  the  vessel  arrived,  Pizarro,  in- 
flexibly bent  on  his  purposes,  peremptorily  refused  to  obey  the 
orders  of  the  governor,  and  used  every  persuasion  to  induce 


OF    SPANISH    AMERICA.  4f 

his  men  to  remain  with  him     He  drew  a  line  on  the  sand  with 
his  sword,  and  informed  his  followers  that  those  who  wished  to 
abandon  their  leader  and  the  glorious  enterprise,  would  pass 
over :  thirteen  only  remained  to  share  the  fortune  of  their 
commander.     This  small  and  dauntless  band  removed  to  the 
island  of  Gorgona.  as  being  a  more  safe  situation,  where  they 
remained  for  more  than  five  months,  constantly  tortured  with 
hopes  and  fears,    and  suffering  every  thing,    short  of  death, 
from  an  unhealthy  climate  and  the  want  of  provisions.     At 
length  a  vessel  arrived  from  the  governor,  to  convey  them  to 
Panama,  which  occasioned  such  excessive  joy,  such  a  sudden 
transition  of  feeling,  that  not  only  his  followers,  but  the  crew 
of  the  vessel,  agreed  to  follow  Pizarro,  and,  instead  of  returning 
to  Panama,  they  bore  away  to  the  south-east,  and  had  the  good 
fortune  to  discover  the  coast  of  Peru.     After  touching  at  sev- 
eral places,  they  landed  at  Tumbez,  situated  about  three  de- 
grees south  of  the  equatorial  line  ;  here  was  a  magnificent 
temple  and  a  palace  of  the  Incas,  or  sovereigns  of  the  empire. 
The  fertility  of  the  country,  the  improvements,  civilization  and 
wealth  of  the  inhabitants,  was  now,  for  the  first  time,  fully  un- 
folded to  the  view  of  the  Spaniards  ;  the  rich  stuffs,  in  which 
many  of  the  inhabitants     ere  clad,  the  ornaments  of  gold  and 
silver,  which  adorned  their  persons,  and  the  more  massy  and 
splendid  ornaments  of  the   precious  metals,  which  enriched 
their  temples,  and  even  the  common  utensils,  composed  of  gold 
and  silver,  attracted  their  enraptured  vision,  convinced  them 
that  their  fondest  dreams  were  realized,  and  that  at  last  they 
had  discovered  the  land  of  Ophir — the  country  of  gold.     They 
feasted  their  eyes  and  their  hopes  on  these  inviting  objects ; 
and  gazed  until  they  almost  imagined  themselves  masters  of 
the  country  and  possessed  of  all  the  wealth  they  saw  and  co- 
veted.    But  with  his  small  force,  Pizarro  did  not  attempt  any 
thing  against  the  country,  and  contented  himself  with  sailing 
along  the  coast  and  trading  with  the  inhabitants ;  he  procured 
several  llamas,  vessels  of  silver  and  gold,  and  several  curious 
specimens  of  their  manufactures,  to  be  exhibited  as  memorials 
of  the  opulent  country  he  had  discovered  and  explored.     He 
also  brought  off  two  native  youths,  under  the  pretence  of  in- 
structing them  in  the  Castilian  language,  but  with  the  real  in- 
tention of  employing  them  as  interpreters. 

But  the  flattering  accounts  which  Pizarro  gave  of  the  opu- 
lence of  the  country,  supported  by  the  specimens  he  had 
brought  with  him,  did  not  change  the  inflexible  resolution  of 
the  governor  of  Panama ;  he  still  refused  to  authorize  or  even 
countenance  the  scheme  of  Pizarro  and  his  two  associates  ;  in 
consequence  of  which,  they  determined  to  apply  directly  to 


48  SKETCH    OF    THE   HISTORY 

their  sovereign.      Having  agreed  among  themselves  that  K- 
zarro  should  be  governor,  Almagro,  adelantado  or  lieutenant- 
governor,  and  Luque,  bishop  of  the  country  they  might  con- 
quer, Pizarro  set  sail  for  Spain,  and  succeeded  beyond  the 
utmost  extent  of  his  hopes.     He  obtained  the  appointment  of 
captain-general  arid  adelantado  of  the  country  he  had  discov- 
ered, described  to  extend  six  hundred  miies  along  the  coast 
south  of  the  river  St.  Jago ;  but  his  unbounded  ambition  lead 
him  to  grasp  every  thing  for  himself,  and  to  disregard  the 
rights  of  Almagro ;  yet  as  the  views  of  Luque  did   not  inter- 
fere with  his  own,  he  obtained  for  him  the  expected  appoint- 
ment.    When  Pizarro  arrived  at  Panama  he  found  Almagro  so 
exasperated  at  his  conduct,  that  he  was  exerting  all  his  influ- 
ence to  embarrass  and  frustrate  his  plans,  and  at  the  same  time 
to  fit  out  an  expedition  himself,  on  his  own  account.     Alarmed 
at  the  consequences  of  an  opposition  from  one  who  had  been 
connected  with  him  in  the  enterprise,  Pizarro  exerted  himself 
to  effect  a  reconciliation,  and  by  offering  to  relinquish  to  Al* 
magro  the  office  of  adelantado,  a  re-union  among  the  confed- 
erates was  established.     The  confederates  now  exerted  them- 
selves to  fit  out  an  armament  for  the  conquest  of  the  country ; 
but  with  all  their  united  efforts,  aided  by  the  alluring  accounts 
of  the  country,  three  small  vessels  with  one  hundred  and  eight 
men,  was  the  extent  of  the  force  which  they  could  raise,  and 
with  this  Pizarro  did  not  hesitate  to  invade  an  extensive  coun- 
try, filled  with  people.     He  landed  in  the  bay  of  St.  Matthew, 
and  avanced  towards  the  south.     In  the  province  of  Coaque 
they  plundered  the  inhabitants  of  gold  and  silver  to  the  amount 
of  forty  thousand  dollars,  a  large  portion  of  which  they  remit- 
ted in  one  of  their  vessels  to  Almagro,  at  Panama,  to  enable 
him  to  procure  recruits  ;  and  despatched  another  vessel  to  Ni- 
caragua.    This  display  of  the  riches  of  the   country,  and  the 
wealth  they  had  already  acquired,  had  a  most  happy  influence 
on   the  cause,  and  procured  several  small  re-enforcements. 
Pizarro  continued  his  march  along  the  coast,  and  met  with  lit- 
tle resistance  from  the  inhabitants,  who,  surprised  and  terrified 
at  the  sudden  appearance  of  such  formidable  invaders,  either 
deserted  their  habitations  and  fled,  or  sued  for  peace  and  fa- 
vour.    He  proceeded  to  Tumbez,  and  from  thence  to  the  river 
Piura,  near  the  mouth  of  which,  at  a  favourable  site,  he  plant- 
ed the  first  colony  in  Peru,  which  he  called  St.  Michael. 

Peru,  at  the  time  it  was  invaded  by  Pizarro,  was  a  powerful 
and  extensive  empire,  being  six  hundred  leagues  in  length  on 
the  coast  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  extending  east  to  the  ridge 
•f  the  Andes,  stretching  from  one  extremity  of  that  ya 
chain  to  the  other.  This  extensive  country,  like  other  parts 


OF  SPANISH   AMERICA.  49 

of  America,  was  originally  inhabited  by  numerous  independ- 
ent tribes  of  savages,  who  were  in  a  rude  and  unimproved 
state  of  nature,  until,  according  to  their  own  traditions,  two 
extraordinary  personages  suddenly  appeared  on  the  banks  of 
the  Lake  Titiaca,  who  founded  the  Peruvian  Empire.  Their 
names  were  Manco  Capac,  and  Mama  Ocollo,  his  consort  ; 
they  were  dressed  in  white  cotton  garments,  were  of  majestic 
form  and  appearance,  and  claimed  to  be  children  of  the  Sun, 
and  to  have  been  sent  by  the  Beneficent  Parent  of  the  human 
race,  who  looked  down  on  the  miseries  of  his  creatures  with 
pity,  to  instruct,  and  impart  to  them  the  blessings  of  peace  and 
civilization. 

The  dignity  and  sanctity  of  these  extraordinary  individuals, 
and  their  knowledge  of  some  of  the  arts  of  life,  which  appear- 
ed wonderful  to  the  simple  natives,  induced  many  of  the  wan- 
dering tribes  to  follow  them,  and  submit  to  their  authority. — 
They  proceeded  to  Cusco,  and  commenced  the  erection  of 
houses,  and  thus  gradually  laid  the  foundation  of  a  city. — 
Blanco  Capac  instructed  the  men  in  agriculture  and  the  useful 
arts,  and  introduced  the  regular  laws  of  society,  whilst  Mama 
Ocollo  taught  the  wTomen  to  spin  and  weave  and  other  domes- 
tic employments  The  institutions  and  laws  of  Manco,  es- 
tablished private  property,  and  the  duties  of  the  social  rela- 
tions, and  provided  for  the  security  of  private  rights,  and  the 
peace  of  the  community.  The  powers  and  duties  of  persons 
in  authority  were  divided,  graduated  and  defined,  and  exerci- 
sed with  such  uniformity  and  steadiness,  as  gave  the  communi- 
ty the  appearance,  if  not  the  character  of  a  well  regulated 
State.  At  first,  the  territory  of  Manco  Capac  extended  but 
about  eight  leagues  around  Cusco,  his  capital  ;  but  it  was  en- 
larged by  him  and  his  successors,  from  time  to  time,  until  it 
comprized  one  of  the  most  extensive  empires  in  the  world. — 
He  and  his  successors  were  styled  Incas,  or  Lords,  and  were 
not  only  obeyed  as  sovereigns,  but  revered  as  divinities  ;  and 
according  to  the  principles  of  legitimacy,  as  recognized  in 
more  civilized  nations,  the  blood  was  to  be  kept  pure,  and  all 
intermarriages  with  the  royal  and  divine  race  of  the  Incas, 
were  prohibited  under  the  severest  penalties. 

When  the  Spaniards  first  visited  Peru,  the  throne  was  filled 
by  Huanan  Capac,  the  twelfth  monarch  from  the  founder  of 
the  empire  and  dynasty.  He  was  a  prince  equally  eminent 
for  his  pacific  virtues,  and  military  talents.  He  conquered  the 
kingdom  of  Quito  in  the  year  1526,  and  annexed  it  to  his  do- 
minions, and  married  the  daughter  of  the  vanquished  mon- 
arch, by  whom  he  had  a  son,  called  Atahualpa.  At  his  death 
he  appointed  this  son  his  successor  in  the  kingdom  of  Quito, 

VOL.  I.  5 


,fjO  SKETCH    OF    THE    HISTOK.1 

and  left  the  rest  of  his  dominions  to  Huascar,  his  oldest  son, 
and  whose  mother  was  of  the  royal  Inca  blood.  The  latter, 
feeling  the  pride  of  legitimacy,  disallowed  the  title  of  his  half- 
brother,  as  he  was  not  of  the  entire  royal  blood,  and  a  civil 
war  ensued.  This  war  was  prevailing,  and  had  filled  the  em- 
pire with  dissensions,  when  Pizarro  landed  in  the  Bay  of  St. 
Michael. 

Atahualpa,  having  the  command  of  the  army  which  his  fa- 
ther had  led  into  Quito,  took  the  field  with  great  advantage 
over  his  rival  ;  defeated,  and  took  him  prisoner  and  confined 
him  in  the  tower  at  Cusco.  Pizarro  obtained  information  of 
these  disorders,  with  great  satisfaction,  from  messengers  sent 
to  him  by  Huascar,  to  solicit  his  aid  against  Atahualpa,  whom 
he  represented  as  a  rebel  who  had  usurped  the  sovereignty,, 
which  belonged  to  himself.  The  importance  of  this  intelli- 
gence being  perceived  by  Pizarro,  he  immediately  put  his 
troops  in  motion,  and  without  waiting  for  a  re-enforcement, 
inarched  into  the  interior  of  the  country,  leaving  a  small  gar- 
rison at  St.  Michael.  With  little  opposition,  he  penetrated  to 
Caxamalca,  the  head-quarters  of  Atahualpa,  who  with  aston- 
ishing simplicity  received  him  in  the  most  friendly  manner. — 
Pizarro,  according  to  the  prevailing  artifice  of  liis  countrymen, 
pretended  that  he  had  come  as  the  ambassador  of  a  very  pow- 
erful monarch  beyond  the  waters,  and  that  the  object  of  his 
mission  was  to  assist  Atahualpa  against  his  enemies,  who  wish- 
ed to  deprive  him  of  his  crown  and  dominions.  Pizarro  took 
possession  of  a  large  court,  on  one  side  of  which  was  a  palace 
of  the  Incas,  and  on  the  other  a  temple  of  the  Sun,  which 
was  the  divinity  of  the  country.  The  whole  being  surround- 
ed by  a  wall  of  earth,  it  afforded  a  safe  and  advantageous  po- 
sition for  his  troops.  Pizarro  immediately  despatched  his 
brother  to  the  carnp  of  Atahualpa  to  re-assure  him  of  his  ami- 
cable intentions,  and  to  invite  him  to  an  interview.  The  ex- 
ample of  Cortes,  strengthened  by  iiis  own  experience  in  the 
country,  determined  him  to  attempt  the  same  bold  measure 
that  had  been  found  so  successful  in  Mexico.  The  interview 
was  conducted  with  great  ceremony  and  dignity  on  the  part 
of  the  Peruvians :  the  Inca  sitting  on  a  throne,  covered  with 
gold  and  adorned  with  plumes  and  precious  stones,  was  carri- 
ed on  the  shoulders  of  four  of  the  principal  officers  of  his 
household,  and  was  preceded  by  four  hundred  men  in  uniform, 
and  followed  by  the  officers  of  government,  civil  and  military, 
accompanied  by  an  immense  retinue  ;  and  his  whole  army  was 
drawn  out  on  the  plain,  amounting  to  more  than  thirty  thou- 
sand JB6B. 


OF    SPANISH    AMERICA.  51 

As  the  Inca  arrived  near  the  Spanish  quarters,  the  chaplain 
of  the  expedition  addressed  him,  and  explained  to  him,  in 
Spanish,  which  was  interpreted,  the  mysteries  of  Christianity, 
the  power  of  the  Pope,  and  the  grant  made  by  his  holiness  of 
all  the  territories  and  countries  of  the  new  world,  to  the  King 
of  Spain,  and  concluded  by  requiring  the  Inca  to  acknowledge 
the  Christian  religion,  the  authority  of  the  Pope,  and  submit 
to  the  King  of  Castile  as  his  lawful  sovereign  ;  and  in  case 
he  should  be  so  unreasonable  and  impious  as  to  refuse  to  obey 
this  demand,  he  denounced  war  against  him  in  the  name  of 
his  sovereign.  Astonished  and  indignant  at  this  incomprehen- 
sible and  presumptuous  harangue,  Atahualpa  replied  that  he 
was  master  of  his  own  dominions,  and  held  them  as  an  inher- 
itance from  his  ancestors,  and  that  he  could  not  perceive  how 
a  priest  should  pretend  to  dispose  of  countries  which  did  not 
belong  to  him,  and  of  which  he  must  have  been  ignorant  even 
of  the  existence  ;  he  said  he  would  not  renounce  the  religion 
of  his  ancestors,  nor  relinquish  the  adoration  of  the  Sun,  the 
immortal  divinity  of  his  country,  to  worship  the  God  of  the 
Spaniards,  who  was  subject  to  death  like  mortals.  He  wished 
to  be  informed  where  the  priest  had  learnt  such  wonderful 
things  :  "  In  this  book,"  said  Father  Valverde,  reaching  to  him 
his  breviary.  The  Inca  took  it  in  his  hand,  and  turning  over 
the  leaves  and  raising  it  to  his  ear,  observed,  "  this  book  is  si- 
lent ;  it  tells  me  nothing,"  and  threw  it  on  the  ground  in  a 
contemptuous  manner.  The  monk,  turning  to  war*  is  liis 
countrymen  in  a  rage,  exclaimed,  "  To  arms,  Christians !  to 
arms  !  the  word  of  God  is  insulted  ;  avenge  this  profanation 
on  those  impious  dogs."  Pizarro,  who  had  previously  made 
the  necessary  arrangements  for  an  attack,  waited  with  impa- 
tience during  this  long  conference,  being  anxious  to  seize  his 
victim  and  the  rich  spoils  that  lay  before  his  eyes.  His  orders 
were  instantly  given  ;  the  martial  music  struck  up,  the  cannon 
roared,  the  musquetry  was  discharged,  the  horse  galloped 
fiercely  to  the  charge,  and  the  infantry  pressed  impetuously 
forward,  sword  in  hand.  Astonished  at  such  infamous  treach- 
ery, and  surprised  and  terrified  at  the  suddenness  of  the  attackf 
and  the  noise  and  destructive  effects  of  fire  arms,  the  Peruvi- 
ans were  filled  with  consternation,  and  fled  with  the  utmost 
precipitation.  Although  the  nobility  flocked  around  the  Inca, 
in  crowds,  zealous  to  defend  him,  he  was  seized  by  Pizarro, 
who,  at  the  head  of  a  chosen  band,  selected  for  the  purpose, 
had  advanced  directly  towards  him.  He  was  dragged  from  his 
throne  to  the  ground,  and  carried  to  the  Spanish  quarters. — 
The  fugitives,  half  frightened  out  of  their  senses,  not  knowing 
whether  their  enemies  were  of  the  human  race,  or  beings  of 


52  SKETCH  OF   THE  HISTORY 

a  superior  nature,  sent  to  punish  them  for  their  crimes,  were 
pursued  in  every  direction,  and  immense  numbers  of  them 
slaughtered,  although  they  did  not  make  the  least  resistance. 
More  than  four  thousand  Peruvians  were  slain,  and  not  a  sin- 
gle Spaniard,  nor  one  wounded,  except  Pizarro  himself,  slight- 
ly on  the  hand,  by  one  of  his  own  men.  The  plunder  was  of 
immense  value,  and  fairly  turned  the  heads  of  such  a  band  of 
desperate  and  indigent  adventurers  ;  they  spent  the  night  in 
that  extravagant  joy  which  a  change  of  fortune  so  sudden  and 
important  was  calculated  to  produce. 

The  wretched  monarch,  removed  in  an  hour  from  a  throne 
to  a  prison,  almost  sunk  under  a  calamity  so  sudden  and  so 
tremendous  :  had  an  earthquake  shaken  the  Andes  from  its 
base  and  swallowed  up  half  his  dominions,  the  calamity  could 
not  have  appeared  more  sudden  or  terrible.  Discovering 
however,  that  an  insatiable  thirst  for  gold  was  the  predominant 
passion  of  his  oppressors,  and  apparently  their  only  object  in 
invading  his  country,  he  offered  as  a  ransom  for  his  liberty,  to 
fill  the  apartment  in  which  he  was  confined,  which  was  twenty- 
two  feet  in  length  and  sixteen  in  breadth,  as  high  as  he  could 
reach,  with  gold.  Pizarro  did  not  hesitate  to  accept  this 
tempting  offer,  and  a  line  was  drawn  round  the  walls,  to  fix 
more  definitely  the  stipulated  height  of  the  chamber.  Trans- 
ported with  the  idea  of  obtaining  his  liberty,  Atahualpa  sent 
to  Cusco,  Quito,  and  other  places,  where  gold  had  been  col- 
lected for  adorning  the  temples  and  palaces  of  the  Incas,  in- 
forming his  subjects  of  the  terms  of  his  ransom,  and  ordering 
all  the  gold  to  be  conveyed  toCaxamalca  for  that  purpose. 

The  Peruvians,  accustomed  to  obey  implicitly  the  mandates 
of  their  sovereign,  flocked  in,  from  all  parts  of  the  empire, 
loaded  with  the  precious  metals,  so  that  in  a  short  period  the 
greater  part  of  the  stipulated  quantity  was  produced,  and  Ata- 
hualpa assured  Pizarro  that  the  residue  would  arrive  as  soon 
as  there  was  sufficient  time  to  convey  it  from  the  remote  prov- 
inces. But  such  piles  of  gold  so  inflamed  the  avarice  of  a 
needy  soldiery,  that  they  could  no  longer  be  restrained,  and 
Pizarro  was  obliged  to  order  the  whole  melted  down  and  di- 
vided among  his  followers.  The  captive  monarch  having 
performed  his  part  of  the  contract,  now  demanded  to  be  set  at 
liberty  ;  but  the  perfidious  Spanish  leader  had  no  such  inten- 
tion ;  his  only  object  being  to  secure  the  plunder ;  and  he 
even  meditated  taking  the  life  of  his  credulous  captive,  at  the 
very  time  the  latter  was  employed  in  amassing  the  treasures 
for  his  ransom.  Atahualpa  was  subjected  to  a  mock- trial, 
condemned  to  be  burnt ;  and  his  last  moments  were  embitter- 
ed by  friar  Valverde,  who,  although  he  had  used  his  influence 


OF    SPANISH    AMERICA.  53 

to  procure  his  condemnation,  and  sanctioned  the  sentence  with 
hiaown  signature,  attempted  to  console  him  in  his  awful  situ- 
ation, and  to  convert  him  to  Christianity.  The  only  argument 
that  had  any  influence  on  the  trembling  victim,  was  that  of 
mitigating  his  punishment  ;  and  on  the  promise  of  being 
strangled,  instead  of  consumed  by  a  slow  fire,  he  consented  to 
be  baptized,  by  the  hand  of  one  of  his  murderers,  who  exerci- 
sed the  holy  functions  of  priest. 

After  the  death  of  Atahualpa,  Pizarro  invested  0ne  of  his 
sons  with  the  ensigns  of  royalty ;  Manco  Capac,  a  brother  of 
Huascar,  was  also  declared  sovereign  at  Cuseo,  and  the  gov- 
ernors of  many  of  the  provinces  assumed  independent  authority, 
so  that  the  empire  was  torn  to  pieces  by  intestine  dissensions. 

The  intelligence  of  the  immense  wealth  acquired  by  Pizar- 
ro and  his  followers,  which  those  who  had  returned  had  con- 
veyed to  Panama,  Nicaragua  arid  Guatamala,  confirmed  by  a 
display  of  the  treasures,  produced  such  an  electric  effect,  that 
it  was  with  difficulty  the  governors  of  those  places  could  re- 
strain their  people  from  abandoning  their  possessions  and  em- 
barking for  Peru,  as  adventurers.  Numerous  re-enforcements 
arrived  from  various  quarters,  which  enabled  Pizarro  to  force 
his  way  into  the  heart  of  the  country  and  take  possession  of 
Cusco,  the  capital  of  the  empire.  The  gold  and  silver  found 
here,  after  all  that  had  been  removed,  exceeded  what  had  been 
received  as  the  ransom  of  Atahualpa. 

Whilst  the  Spanish  commander  was  thus  employed,  Benal- 
cazar,  who  had  been  left  in  command  at  St.  Michael,  having 
received  some  re-enforcements,  left  a  garrison  at  that  place, 
and  set  out  with  the  rest  of  the  troops  under  his  command  for 
the  conquest  of  Quito.  After  a  long  and  difficult  march,  over 
mountains  and  rivers,  exposed  to  the  fierce  attacks  of  the 
natives,  he  entered  the  city  of  Quito.  The  tranquillity  of  the 
interior,  and  the  arrival  of  Ferdinand  Pizarro,  brother  of  the 
command  er-in-chief,  with  considerable  re-enforcements,  indu- 
ced the  latter  to  march  back  to  the  sea  coast,  where,  in  the 
year  1534,  he  laid  the  foundation  of  the  city  of  Lima,  distin- 
guished in  after  times  for  its  wealth  and  earthquakes,  and  more 
recently  as  the  seat  of  civil  war.  In  the  mean  time,  Amalgro 
set  out  on  an  expedition  for  the  conquest  of  Chile  ;  and  sev- 
eral parties  were  ordered  by  Pizarro  into  distant  provinces, 
which  had  not  been  subjugated.  These  various  enterprises 
had  reduced  the  troops  at  Cusco  to  a  small  number.  The 
Peruvians,  aware  of  this  circumstance,  and  being  now  persua- 
ded that  the  Spaniards  would  not  voluntarily  retire  from  their 
country,  but  intended  to  establish  themselves  in  it,  were  at  last 
aroused  Irom  their  inactivity  and  seemed  determined  to  expel 

5* 


54  SKETCH    OP    THE    HISTORY 

their  rapacious  invaders.  Preparations,  through  the  whole 
empire,  were  carried  on  with  such  secrecy  and  despatch,  asfco 
elude  the  utmost  vigilance  of  the  Spaniards  ;  and  Manco  Ca- 
pac,  who  was  acknowledged  by  all  as  sovereign  at  this  time, 
having  made  his  escape  from  the  Spaniards  at  Cusco,  where 
he  had  been  detained  as  a  prisoner,  the  standard  of  war  was 
immediately  raised  ;  troops  assembled  from  all  parts  of  the 
empire,  and  according  to  the  Spanish  writers  of  that  period, 
two  hundred  thousand  men  laid  siege  to  Cusco,  which  was 
defended  for  nine  months  by  one  hundred  and  seventy  Span- 
iards. A  numerous  army  also  invested  Lima,  and  all  commu- 
nication between  the  two  cities  was  cut  off.  The  Peruvians 
not  only  displayed  the  utmost  bravery,  but  imitating  the  disci- 
pline of  their  enemies,  large  bodies  were  marshalled  in  regular 
order  ;  some  of  their  bravest  warriors  were  armed  with  swords 
and  spears  ;  others  appeared  with  muskets,  obtained  from  the 
Spaniards,  and  a  few  of  the  boldest,  at  the  head  of  whom  was 
the  Inca  himself,  were  mounted  on  horses,  which  they  had 
taken  from  their  invaders,  and  charged  like  Spanish  cavaliers. 
All  the  exertions  of  the  Spanish  garrison,  directed  by  the  three 
brothers  of  the  commander-in-chief,  and  rendered  desperate 
from  their  situation,  could  not  resist  the  incessant  attacks  of 
the  Peruvians  ;  they  recovered  possession  of  one  half  of  their 
capital  ;  and  the  Spaniards,  worn  out  with  uninterrupted  ser- 
vice, suffering  for  the  want  of  provisions,  and  ignorant  as  to 
their  brethren  in  other  stations,  and  the  number  of  their  ene- 
mies daily  increasing,  were  ready  to  despair  ;  the  stoutest, 
hearts  sunk  under  such  accumulated,  such  appalling  difficul- 
ties and  dangers. 

At  this  hour  of  darkness,  when  the  lamp  of  hope  emitted 
but  a  glimmering  ray,  Almagro  appeared  at  Cusco.  But  even 
this  event  the  Pizarros  hardly  knew  whether  to  regard  as  aus- 
picious or  calamitous,  as  they  knew  not  whether  he  had  come 
as  a  friend  or  foe.  Whilst  in  Chile,  he  had  received  a  patent 
from  the  Crown,  constituting  him  Governor  of  Chile,  and  de- 
fining its  limits,  which,  by  his  own  construction,  included  the 
city  of  Cusco;  and  being  informed  of  the  revolt  of  the  Peru- 
vians, he  marched  back  to  prevent  the  place  from  falling  into 
the  possession  of  the  natives,  and  also  to  rescue  it  from  the 
hands  of  the  Pizarros.  Almagro  was,  therefore,  the  enemy 
of  both  parties,  and  both  attempted  to  negotiate  with  him. 
The  Inca,  knowing  his  situation  and  pretensions,  at  first  at- 
tempted to  make  terms  with  him ;  but  soon  being  convinced 
that  no  faith  could  be  had  wjth  a  Spaniard,  he  fell  suddenly 
upon  him,  with  a  numerous  body  of  his  bravest  troops.  The 
discipline  and  good  fortune  of  the  Spaniards  once  more  pre- 


OF    SPANISH    AMERICA.  55 

vailed,  and  the  Peruvians  were  defeated  with  an  immense 
slaughter,  and  their  whole  army  dispersed.  Almagro's  atten- 
tion was  now  directed  against  the  garrison ;  and  having  sur- 
prized the  sentinels,  he  entered  the  town  by  night,  surrounded 
the  house  where  the  two  Pizarros  quartered,  and  compelled 
the  garrison  to  surrender  at  discretion.  Francisco  Pizarro, 
having  defeated  and  driven  off  the  Peruvians  who  invested 
Lima,  sent  a  detachment  of  five  hundred  men  to  Cusco  to  the 
relief  of  his  brothers,  in  case  they  had  not  already  fallen  into 
the  hands  of  the  Peruvians.  On  their  arrival  they  were  as- 
tonished to  find  an  enemy  in  their  own  countrymen,  which 
was  the  first  knowledge  they  had  of  the  events  that  had  occur- 
red at  Cusco.  After  first  attempting,  without  success,  to  se- 
duce Alvarado,  their  commander,  Almagro  surprized  and  fell 
upon  them  in  the  night  in  their  camp,  took  Alvarado  and  his 
principal  officers  prisoners,  and  completely  routed  the  party. 
Pizarro,  alarmed  for  the  safety  of  his  two  brothers,  as  well 
as  for  the  security  of  his  possessions,  opened  a  negotiation 
with  Almagro;  and  having  artfully  prolonged  the  same,  for 
several  months,  and  by  deception  and  perfidy  procured  the 
liberation  of  his  brothers,  he  threw  off  all  disguise,  abandon- 
ed the  negotiation,  and  prepared  to  settle  the  dispute  in  the 
field ;  and  seven  hundred  men,  ready  to  march  to  Cusco,  at- 
tested the  rapidity  of  his  preparations.  The  command  of 
these  troops  he  gave  to  his  two  brothers,  who,  anxious  for 
victory,  and  thirsting  for  revenge,  penetrated  through  the  de- 
files of  one  branch  of  the  Andes,  and  appeared  on  the  plain 
before  Cusco.  Almagro  had  five  hundred  men,  veteran  sol- 
diers, and  a  greater  number  of  cavalry  than  his  enemy :  being 
worn  out  by.  services  and  fatigues,  too  great  for  his  advanced 
age,  he  was  obliged  to  entrust  the  command  to  Orgognez,  who, 
though  an  officer  of  much  merit,  had  not  the  same  ascendan- 
cy over  the  troops  as  their  chief,  whom  they  had  long  been 
accustomed  to  follow  in  the  career  of  victory.  Pizarro  had  a 
superiority  in  numbers,  and  an  advantage  from  two  companies 
armed  with  muskets,  and  disciplined  to  their  use.  Whilst 
countrymen  and  brethren,  who  had  made  common  cause  in 
plundering  and  massacreing  the  natives,  were  drawn  up  in 
hostile  array,  and  under  the  same  banners,  to  shed  each  oth- 
er's blood,  the  Indians,  like  distant  clouds,  covered  the  moun- 
tains,, and  viewed  with  astonishment,  but  with  pleasure,  that 
rapacity  and  violence  of  which  they  had  been  the  victims, 
about  to  recoil  on  the  heads  of  their  invaders,  and  (to  be  in- 
flicted by  their  own  hands.  They  were  prepared  to  fall  on 
the  victorious  party,  who,  exhausted  by  the  contest,  might  be 
an  easy  prey,  and  thus  appropriate  the  victory  to  themselves. 


56  SKETCH    OF    THE    HISTORY 

The  conflict  was  fierce  and  tremendous  ;  for  "  when  Greek 
meets  Greek,  then  comes  the  tug  of  war  ;"  for  a  considerable 
time  the  result  was  doubtful,  but  Orgognez,  having  received  a 
dangerous  wound,  his  party  was  completely  routed,  himself 
slain  in  cold  blood,  one  hundred  and  forty  killed,  and  the  rest 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  victors.  Almagro,  who  had  wit- 
nessed the  action  from  ,a  litter  with  the  deepest  emotions,  at- 
tempted to  escape,  but  was  made  a  prisoner  After  being  de- 
tained in  custody  for  several  months,  he  was  subjected  to  a 
mock-trial,  and  sentenced  to  death.  Cusco  was  again  pillag- 
ed, but  its  rich  spoils  did  not  satisfy  the  rapacity  of  its  con- 
querors. 

Pizarro  now  considered  himself  master  of  the  entire  coun- 
try, and  parcelled  it  out  among  his  favourites,  with  as  much 
jUvStice  and  propriety,  as  the  Pope  had  granted  the  whole  to 
his  master.  But  not  being  able  to  satisfy  all,  and  to  prevent 
the  consequences  of  the  complaints  and  the  turbulence  of  his 
men,  he  promoted  enterprizes  which  employed  them  at  a  dis- 
tance. Valdivia  resumed  the  project  of  the  conquest  of  Chile, 
and  founded  the  city  of  St.  Jago  de  Santiago.  His  brother 
Gonsalo  Pizarro,  he  appointed  to  supersede  Benalcazar  as 
governor  of  Quito,  and  instructed  him  to  examine  and  con- 
quer the  country  east  of  the  Andes.  At  the  hea'd  of  three 
hundred  and  fifty  men,  he  forced  his  way  through  the  defiles 
and  over  the  elevated  ridges  of  the  Andes,  where  the  cold  was 
so  excessive,  that  four  thousand  Indians,  who  accompanied 
him  to  transport  his  provisions,  all  perished  ;  and  from  their 
excessive  fatigues,  the  severity  of  the  cold,  and  the  want  of 
provisions,  the  Spaniards  themselves,  inured  to  hardships  as 
they  were,  could  scarcely  sustain  such  accumulated  evils,  such 
intolerable  sufferings.  Some  of  their  number  fell  victims  to 
them.  After  crossing  the  mountains,  new  and  unexpected 
calamities  from  the  climate  awaited  them,  and  scarcely  less 
severe  ;  having  escaped  the  frosts  of  the  mountains,  they  were 
now  to  be  destroyed  by  the  rains  of  the  plains.  For  two 
months  the  rain  fell  incessantly  ;  there  was  scarcely  sufficient 
fair  weather  to  dry  their  clothes.  They,  however,  advanced 
until  they  reached  the  banks  of  one  of  the  principal  branches 
of  the  Maragnon  or  Amazon.  Here  they  constructed  a  bark 
for  the  purpose  of  passing  rivers,  conveying  provisions,  and  ex- 
ploring the  country.  Fifty  men  were  put  on  board,  under 
Orellana,  the  officer  next  in  authority  to  Pizarro,  and  the  ra- 
pidity of  the  stream  soon  carried  them  a-head  of  their  breth- 
ren, who  made  their  way  with  difficulty  by  land. 

Orellana,  imitating  the  examples  which  had  been  furnished 
Mm,  was  no  sooner  beyond  the  power  of  Pizarro,  than  he 


OF  SPANISH     AMERICA.  5 

considered  himself  independent,  and  determined  to  carry  on 
business  in  his  own  account,  as  a  discoverer.  He  formed  the 
bold  scheme  of  pursuing  the  course  of  the  Amazon  to  the, 
ocean,  and  exploring  the  vast  interior  regions  of  the  southern 
continent.  This  daring  attempt,  as  bold  as  it  was  unjustifia- 
ble, he  accomplished  :  committing  his  frail  bark  to  the  gui- 
dance of  the  rapid  stream,  he  penetrated  four  thousand  miles 
through  an  unknown  region,  filled  with  hostile  tribes,  and 
where  for  unknown  ages,  wild  beasts  and  savages  alone 
had  roamed  joint  tenants  of  its  immense  domains.  He  found 
his  way  safely  to  the  ocean,  and  finally  to  Spain,  where  he  pub- 
lished a  marvellous  account  of  his  voyage  and  discoveries  ;  and 
among  other  wonders,  gave  an  account  of  a  nation  or  commu- 
nity of  women,  which  he  visited,  having  all  the  heroic  virtues 
of  the  ancient  Amazons  ;  and  fromi  the  propensity  of  mankind 
for  the  marvellous,  this  community  of  Amazons  long  maintain- 
ed their  existence,  after  the  discoveries  made,  and  the  pro- 
gress of  science  had  dissipated  the  darkness  which  first  gave 
credit  to  the  narration.  Orellana  was  ordered  to  wait  at  the 
junction  of  the  Napo  with  the  Amazon,  for  the  arrival  of  Pi- 
zarro  ;  and  the  astonishment  and  consternation  of  the  latter, 
when  he  ascertained  the  infamous  treachery  of  Orellana,  who 
iiad  basely  deprived  his  brethren  of  their  only  resource,  and 
left  them  to  perish  in  the  heart  of  an  immense  wilderness,  can 
better  be  conceived  than  described.  They  were  twelve  hun- 
dred miles  from  Quito,  to  which  place  they  turned  their  course ; 
the  hardships  they  had  before  encountered,  now  seemed  com- 
paratively but  small ;  they  were  compelled  to  subsist  on  ber- 
ries and  roots  ;  they  even  devoured  their  dogs,  horses,  the 
most  loathsome  reptiles,  and  the  leather  of  their  saddles.  Af-  * 
ter  the  expiration  of  two  years,  eighty  of  the  Spaniards  only, 
returned  to  Quito,  and  these  were  as  naked  as  the  savages, 
and  emaciated  to  skeletons. 

But  Pizarro  found  neither  repose  nor  consolation  on  his  re- 
turn ;  as  the  last  dregs  of  his  cup  of  bitterness,  he  learnt  the 
awful  fate  of  his  brother,  and  the  overthrow  of  his  power.  The 
adherents  of  Almagro  and  other  malecontents,  formed  a  bold 
conspiracy,  surprised  and  assassinated  the  governour  in  his 
own  palace,  and  proclaimed  young  Almagro,  now  arrived  at 
manhood,  to  be  the  head  of  the  government,  as  successor  to 
his  father.  The  shocking  dissensions  in  Peru,  being  known 
at  the  Court  of  Castile,  Vaca  de  Castro  received  a  royal  com- 
mission, appointing  him  Governour  of  Peru,  for  the  purpose  of 
quieting  the  existing  disturbances,  and  establishing  the  au- 
thority of  the  Spanish  government.  Having  landed  at  Quito, 
li«  immediately,  and  with  great  energy,  adopted  measures  to 


58  SKETCH  OF  THE  HISTORY 

suppress  the  insurrection,  and  bring  the  daring  conspirators  to 
punishment.  He  marched  towards  Cusco,  whither  Almagro 
had  retired  ;  the  hostile  parties  met  at  Chupaz,  about  two 
hundred  miles  from  Cusco,  and  both  determined  to  decide  the 
contest  at  once.  The  action  was  bloody  and  decisive,  and 
characterized  by  that  fierceness,  impetuosity  and  vindictive 
spirit,  which  the  deadly  animosities  of  both  parties,  and  des- 
perate situation  of  one,  were  calculated  to  inspire  ;  and  the 
slaughter  was  in  proportion  to  the  maddening  fury  of  the  com- 
batants. Of  fourteen  hundred  men,  the  whole  number  enga- 
ged on  both  sides,  more  than  one  thousand  lay  dead  and  woun- 
ded on  the  field  of  battle,  buperiority  of  numbers  prevailed, 
and  young  Almagro  and  his  party,  or  ail  who  escaped  the 
sword,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  victors.  And  although  they 
-  were  countrymen  and  fellow-christians,  the  tender  mercies  of 
their  conquerors  were  cruelties ;  forty  were  executed  as  reb- 
els ;  many  were  banished,  and  young  Almagro,  their  leader, 
was  publicly  beheaded  at  Cusco.  These  events  occurred  in 
1542. 

At  length,  the  torch  of  civil  dissension,  if  not  extinguished, 
ceased  to  burn  ;  and  a  short  period  of  repose  was  restored  to 
a  country,  whose  history  hitherto  was  but  a  succession  of  car- 
nage and  blood-shed. 

But  tranquillity  in  Peru,  was  not  of  long  continuance ;  new 
regulations  having  been  framed  for  the  government  of  the 
Spanish  possessions  in  America,  which  greatly  alarmed  the 
settlers,  by  depriving  them  of  their  oppressive  power  over  the 
natives,  and  Nugnez  Vela  being  sent  out  to  Peru  as  governor, 
to  enforce  them,  the  elements  of  dissension  were  again 
brought  into  action,  and  the  gathering  clouds  threatened  anoth- 
er storm  of  civil  war.  The  rashness  and  violence  of  the  new 
governor,  increased  the  disorders,  and  spread  the  disaffection 
throughout  the  provinces.  The  malecontents  from  all  quar- 
ters looked  to  Gonsalo  Pizarro,  as  their  leader  and  deliverer  ; 
and,  having  taken  the  field,  he  soon  found  himself  at  the  head 
of  one  thousand  men,  with  which  he  moved  towards  Lima. 
But  before  he  arrived  there,  a  revolution  had  taken  place  ; 
the  governor  and  the  judges  of  the  Court  of  Audience,  had 
long  b»en  in  contention,  and  finally  the  latter  gaining  the  as- 
cendancy, seized  the  governor,  and  sent  him  prisoner  to  a  de- 
sert island  on  the  coast.  Pizarro,  finding  things  in  this  state 
of  disorder,  beheld  the  supreme  authority  within  his  reach, 
and  compelled  the  judges  of  the  royal  audience  to  appoint 
him  governor  and  captain-general  of  Peru.  He  had  scarcely 
possessed  himself  of  his  usurped  authority,  before  he  was  cal- 
led to  defend  it,  against  a  formidable  opponent.  Nugnez  Ve« 


OF  SPANISH    AMERICA.  59 

la,  the  governor,  being  set  at  liberty  by  the  officer,  entrusted 
with  conducting  him  to  Spain,  landed  at  Tumbez,  raised  the 
royal  standard  and  resumed  his  functions  as  viceroy  of  the 
province.  Many  distinguished  individuals  declared  in  his  fa- 
vour, and  from  the  violence  of  Pizarro's  administration,  he 
soon  found  himself  at  the  head  of  a  considerable  force.  Pi- 
zarro immediately  prepared  to  meet  him,  and  to  decide,  by  the 
umpirage  of  the  sword,  the  validity  of  their  respective  preten- 
sions. But  Vela  being  inferior  in  the  number  of  his  forces, 
aud  unwilling  to  stake  his  power  and  his  life  on  the  issue  of  an 
engagement,  retreated  towards  Quito,  and  was  pursued  with 
great  celerity  by  Pizarro. 

Not  being  able  to  defend  Quito,  the  viceroy  continued  his 
march  into  the  province  of  Popayan,  where  he  received  so 
considerable  re-enforcements,  that  he  determined  to  march 
back  to  Quito,  and  decide  the  contest.  Pizarro,  confiding  in 
the  known  bravery  of  his  troops,  rejoiced  at  an  opportunity  to 
meet  him ;  the  conflict,  as  usual,  was  sharp,  fierce,  and 
bloody  ;  Pizarro  was  victorious,  and  the  viceroy,  who  fell  cov- 
ered with  wounds,  had  his  head  cut  off  and  placed  on  a  gibbet 
in  Quito,  whilst  the  conquerers  made  a  triumphal  entry  into 
the  city.  All  opposition  to  the  authority  of  the  victor  ceased, 
and  Pizarro  now  found  himself  supreme  master  of  Peru,  and 
of  the  South  Sea,  as  he  possessed  a  fleet  which  had  captured 
Panama,  and  commanded  the  ocean. 

These  alarming  dissensions  gave  great  concern  to  the  gov- 
ernment of  Spain,  and  led  to  the  appointment  of  Pedro  de 
la  Gasca,  with  unlimited  authority  to  suppress  them  and  re- 
store tranquillity,  and  the  power  of  the  parent  country.  He 
came  without  troops  and  almost  without  attendants :  his  con- 
duct was  directly  the  reverse  of  Vela,  his  predecessor  ;  he 
was  truly  the  minister  of  peace  ;  it  was  his  object  to  reclaim, 
not  to  subdue  ;  and  by  his  conciliatory  conduct,  mild  and  judi- 
cious measures,  he  effected  more  than  he  could  have  done  by 
the  sword.  Several  of  Pizarro's  officers  declared  in  his  favour, 
and  from  the  contagion  of  example,  and  the  oblivion  which 
he  proclaimed  to  all  past  offences,  and  a  promise  of  redres- 
sing grievances,  his  adherents  daily  and  rapidly  increased.  Pi- 
zarro, as  is  the  case  of  all  usurpers,  when  their  power  is  in 
danger,  was  filled  with  apprehension  and  rage.  He  sent  dep- 
uties to  bribe  Gasca,  and  if  that  could  not  be  done,  to  cut  him 
off  by  assassination,  or  poison  ;  but  his  messengers,  instead  of 
executing  his  diabolical  orders,  joined  Gasca  themselves.  Ir- 
ritated at  the  disaffection  of  his  officers  and  men,  he  prepared 
to  decide  the  dispute  in  the  field  ;  and  Gasca,  perceiving  that, 
it  wenld  become  necessary  to  employ  force,  took  steps  to  as- 


6Q  SKETCH    OF    THE   HISTORY 

semble  troops  in  Peru  and  collect  them  from  other  colonies. 
Pizarro  marched  rapidly  to  Cusco,  and  attacked  Centeno,  who 
had  joined  Gasca,  and  although  he  had  but  half  the  number  of 
men,  he  obtained  a  signal  victory,  attended  with  immense 
slaughter.  This  good  fortune  was  probably  the  cause  of  his 
ruin,  as  it  elevated  his  hopes  so  high,  as  inclined  him  to  re- 
fuse all  terms  of  accommodation,  although  Gasca  continued 
to  the  last,  extremely  moderate  in  his  demands,  and  seemed 
more  desirous  to  reclaim  than  to  conquer.  Gasca  having  tri- 
ed, without  successs,  every  means  of  avoiding  the  distressing 
alternative  of  imbruing  his  hands  in  the  blood  of  his  conntry- 
men,  at  length,  at  the  head  of  sixteen  hundred  men,  moved 
towards  Cusco  ;  and  Pizarro,  with  oue  thousand  more  expe- 
rienced veterans,  confident  of  victory,  suffered  him  to  advance 
to  within  four  leagues  of  the  capital,  when  he  marched  out. 
eager  to  meet  him.  He  chose  his  ground,  drew  up  his  men 
in  line  of  battle,  and  the  very  moment  he  expected  the  action 
to  commence,  some  of  his  principal  officers  galloped  off  and 
surrendered  themselves  to  the  enemy  ;  their  example  was 
followed  by  others,  and  this  extraordinary  conduct  spread 
distrust  arid  amazement  from  rank  to  rank  ;  one  company 
after  another  threw  down  their  arms,  and  went  over  to  the 
royalists.  Pizarro,  and  some  of  his  officers  who  remained 
faithful,  attempted  to  stop  them  by  entreaties  and  threats,  but 
it  was  all  in  vain  ;  they  soon  found  themselves  deserted  of 
nearly  their  whole  army.  Pizarro  fell  into  the  hands  of  Gas- 
ca, and  was  beheaded  the  next  day  ;  several  of  his  most  dis- 
tinguished and  notorious  followers  shared  the  same  fate  ;  Car- 
vajal,  at  the  advanced  age  of  four  score,  and  who  had  long 
been  accustomed  to  scenes  of  carnage  and  peril, \  on  being 
informed  of  his  sentence,  carelessly  replied,  "  Well,  a  man  can 
die  but  once."  Gasca,  as  moderate  and  just  after  victory  as 
before,  pardoned  all  the  rest,  and  exerted  himself  to  sooth  the 
feelings  of  the  remaining  rnalecontents  ;  he  simplified  the 
collection  of  the  revenue,  re-established  the  administration  of 
justice,  and  provided  lor  the  protection  and  bettering  the 
condition  of  the  Indians  ;  and  having  accomplished  every 
object  of  his  mission  he  returned  to  Spain,  in  1549,  as  poor  as 
he  left  it,  but  universally  admired  for  his  talents,  virtues,  and 
important  services.  He  entrusted  the  government  of  Peru 
to  the  Court  of  Audience.  For  several  years  after  this, 
the  machinations  and  rapacity  of  several  ambitious  chiefs,  dis- 
tracted the  Peruvian  states  with  civil  contentions ;  but  at 
length  the  authority  of  Spain  was  completely  and  firmly  estab- 
lished over  the  whole  of  that  extensive  and  valuable  portion  of 
America. 


OF   SPANISH    AMERICA.  61 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Settlement  of  the  different  provinces  in  America — formed  into 
two  grand  divisions — viceroyalty  of  New  Spain  and  Peru — 
ihe  Council  of  Indies  established — a  new  viceroyalty  called  San* 
ta  Fe  de  Bogota — events  in  the  provinces  of  Rio  de  La  Plata — 
establishment  of  the  Board  of  Trade  of  Seville— —policy  of 
Spain  in  relation  to  her  colonies — difference  between  Great- 
Britain  and  Spain,  in  this  respect — ecclesiastical  establishment, 
in  America — conduct  of  missionaries — inquisition  established 
~by  Philip  II. — oppressive  conduct  of  the  Spaniards  towards 
the  natives — their  wretched  condition — gold  and  silver  mines — 
commercial  regulations — revenue  derived  from  the  colonies. 

THAT  part  of  the  southern  continent  of  America,  stretching 
to  the  eastward  of  Darien,  comprising  the  provinces  of  Cartha- 
gena  and  Santa  Martha,  was  discovered  by  Roderigo  de  Basti- 
gas,  in  the  year  1520,  and  was  subjugated  by  Pedro  de  Here- 
<lia,  in  the  year  1532.  As  early  as  the  year  1544,  Carthagena 
had  become  a  considerable  town,  and  its  harbour  was  the 
safest  and  best  fortified  of  any  in  the  Spanish  territories  in  the 
new  world.  -Its  situation  is  favourable  for  commerce,  and  it 
was  selected  as  the  port  at  which  the  Spanish  galleons  should 
first  begin  to  trade,  on  their  arrival  from  Europe,  and  to  which 
1hey  were  to  return,  in  order  to  prepare  for  their  homeward 
voyage.  The  province  of  Venezuela  was  first  visited  by  Ojeda, 
in  the  year  1499,  in  his  voyage  of  discovery,  which  has  before 
Iseen  noticed.  Observing  an  Indian  village,  built  on  piles,  to 
raise  it  above  the  stagnant  water,  the  Spaniards,  from  their 
propensity  to  discover  resemblances  between  America  and  Eu~ 
lope,  bestowed  on  it  the  name  of  Venezuela,  or  little  Venice. 

Charles  Vth,  to  obtain  a  large  loan  of  the  Velsers  of  Augs- 
burgh,  then  the  wealthiest  merchants  in  Europe,  granted  to 
them  the  province  of  Venezuela,  to  be  held  as  an  hereditary 
fief,  on  condition  that  they  were  to  subjugate  the  natives  and 
plant  a  colony  in  the  territory.  The  proprietors  sent  out  some 
German  adventurers,  who,  instead  of  establishing  a  colony, 
wandered  about  the  conntry  in  search  of  mines  and  to  plunder 

VOL.  I.  6 


62  SKETCH    OP   THE   HISTORV 

the  natives.  In  a  few  years  their  avarice  and  rapacity  desol&* 
ted  the  province,  instead  of  settling  it,  and  the  proprietors,  des'~ 
pairing  of  succeeding  in  the  enterprise,  relinquished  then- 
grant  and  the  occupation  of  the  country,  when  the  Spaniards 
again  took  possession  of  it ;  but  notwithstanding  its  natural  ad- 
vantages, it  long  remained  one  of  their  most  unpromising  set- 
tlements. 

The  new  kingdom  of  Grenada,  as  it  was  called,  is  an  interior 
region,  and  was  subjugated  to  the  authority  of  Spain,  in  1536, 
'by  Benalcazar,  who  invaded  it  from  Quito,  where  he  was  in 
command  under  Pizarro  and  Quesada.  The  natives  being 
more  improved  than  any  in  America,  not  excepting  the  Peru- 
vians and  Mexicans,  defended  themselves  with,  resolution, 
'bravery  and  perseverance  ;  but  here,  as  every  where  else,  dis- 
cipline and  science  prevailed  over  barbarian  force.  The  In- 
dians in  New  Granada,  not  having  been  subjected  to  the  same 
services  of  working  in  mines,  which  in  other  parts  of  America 
have  wasted  that  miserable  race,  continued  more  populous  in 
this  colony  than  in  any  other.  Gold  was  found  here,  not  by 
digging  into  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  but  mixed  with  the  soil 
near  the  surface,  on  the  more  elevated  tracts.  One  of  thft 
governors  of  Santa  Fe  carried  to  Spain  a  lump  of  pure  gold, 
found  in  one  of  the  provinces  of  New  Granada,  valued  at 
more  than  three  thousand  dollars. 

The  kingdom  of  New  Granada  was  first  established  in  1547, 
and  was  under  the  government  of  a  captain-general  and  royal 
audience ;  the  seat  of  government  was  fixed  at  Santa  Fe  de 
Bogota.  In  1718,  it  was  erected  into  a  viceroy alty,  together 
with  several  other  provinces  ;  but  this  government  was  annul- 
led in  1724,  and  restored  in  1740,  and  continued  an  independ- 
ant  government  until  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution,  when 
it  was  incorporated  into  the  republic  of  Colombia. 

The  provinces  of  Caraccas  and  Cumana  lie  to  the  eastward 
of  Venezuela,  and  together  with  Carthagena  and  Santa  Mar- 
tha, formed  what  was  anciently  called  the  Kingdom  of  Terra 
Firma,  and  all  are  now  included  in  the  Republic  of  Colombia. 
These  two  provinces  were,  for  along  period,  principally  known 
and  distinguished  for  the  cultivation  and  commerce  in  the  nuts 
of  the  cocoa-tree,  which,  next  to  those  produced  in  Guatama- 
la,  on  the  South  Sea,  are  the  best  in  America.  A  paste,  form- 
ed from  the  nut  or  almond  of  the  cocoa-tree,  compounded  with 
certain  ingredients,  constitutes  chocolate,  the  manufacture  and 
use  of  which  the  Spaniards  first  learned  from  the  Mexicans 
and  being  a  palatable  and  wholesome  beverage,  it  soon  became 
introduced  into  use  in  Europe,  and  an  important  article  of 
commerce. 


OF    SPANISH    AMERICA.  63 

Prom  the  contiguity  of  the  settlements  of  the  Dutch  to  the 
Coast  of  Caraccas,  on  the  island  of  Curracoa,  and  their  supe- 
rior enterprise  in  traffic,  they  engrossed  most  of  the  cocoa 
trade  from  Caraccas,  and  Spain  ifself  was  obliged  to  receive 
the  article  from  foreigners,  at  an  exorbitant  price,  although 
the  product  of  their  own  colonies.  To  remedy  an  evil,  not 
mpre  detrimental  to  the  interests  than  disgraceful  to  the  en* 
terprise  of  Spain,  in  the  year  1728,  Philip  the  Vth  granted  to 
a  company  of  merchants  an  entire  and  exclusive  monopoly  of 
the  commerce  vyith  Caraccas  and  Cumana.  This  association, 
sometimes  called  the  Company  of  Caraccas,  restored  to  Spain 
this  branch  of  the  commerce  of  America,  greatly  extended  it, 
as  the  consumption  of  the  article  increased,  and  being  subject- 
ed to  proper  regulations,  to  counteract  the  effects  of  the  mo- 
nopoly, advanced  the  growth  and  progress  of  the  settlement. 

Mexico,  or  new  Spain,  and  Peru,  were  at  first  regarded,  by 
the  Spaniards,  as  the  most  important  and  valuable  portions  of 
America,  not  so  much  on  account  of  their  fertility,  or  any  geo- 
graphical superiority,  as  from  the  consideration  of  their  being 
inhabited  by  people  in  a  higher  state  of  improvement,  and  con- 
sequently affording  more  gratifying  objects  for  the  rapacity  of 
the  first  adventurers.  The  numbers  of  adventurers  which 
these  objects,  and  the  civil  contentions  which  they  occasioned, 
originally  drew  to  these  countries,  tended  to  commence  their 
settlement  under  more  favourable  auspices  than  any  other  co- 
lonies enjoyed  ;  the  rich  mines,  afterwards  discovered,  had  a 
powerful  operation  to  attract  enterprise  and  allure  adventurers  ; 
and  the  complete  subjugation  or  the  natives,  both  in  Mexico 
and  Peru,  and  reducing  them  to  a  condition  of  domestic  ser- 
vitude, and  apportioning  them,  together  with  the  lands,  among 
the  first  adventurers,  (whilst  in  other  districts  the  natives,  more 
wild  and  ferocious,  without  fixed  habitations,  subsisting  by 
hunting,  could  no  otherwise  be  overcome  than  by  being  exter- 
minated or  expelled,)  were  among  the  causes  which  continued, 
for  a  long  period,  to  promote  the  growth  of  Mexico  and  Peru, 
and  to  render  them  the  principal  of  the  Spanish  colonies  ;  and 
the  same  causes  occasioned  the  other  settlements  to  be  regard- 
ed only  as  appendages  of  one  or  the  other  of  these,  or  of  little 
importance.  Hence,  after  the  Spanish  conquests  in  America 
had  been  so  far  completed  as  to  justify  the  establishment  on 
the  part  of  Spain,  of  regular  colonial  governments,  their  whole 
American  dominions  were  divided  into  two  immense  govern- 
ments, one  called  the  Viceroyalty  of  New  Spain,  the  other  the 
Viceroyalty  of  Peru  ;  the  seats  of  government  were  Mexico 
and  Lima.  The  former  comprehended  all  the  possessions  of 
in  the  northern  division  of  the  American  continent,  and 


64  SKETCH    OF   THE   HISTORY 

the  latter  comprised  all  her  settlements  and  territories  in  South 
America. 

New  Spain  embraced,  under  the  Spaniards,  a  much  more 
extensive  region  than  the  Empire  of  Mexico,  or  the  dominions 
of  Montazuma  and  his  predecessors  ;  the  vast  territory  called 
New  Navarre,  extending  to  the  north  and  west,  and  the  pro- 
vinces  of  Cinaloa  and  Sonora,  stretching  along  the  east  side  of 
the  Gulf  of  California,  and  also  the  Peninsula  of  California, 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  gulf,  and  the  provinces  of  Yucatan 
and  Honduras,  extending  from  the  Bay  of  Campeachy  to  be- 
yond Cape  Gracias  a  Dios,  were  comprised  within  the  territo- 
ries of  New  Spain,  which  did  not  belong  to  the  Mexican  Em- 
pire. These  countries  were  mostly  visited  and  subjugated  by 
Spanish  adventurers,  in  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  Peninsula  of  California  was  discovered  by  Cortes,  in  1536, 
and  was  so  entirely  neglected,  that  for  a  long  period  it  was  not 
known  whether  it  was  an  island  or  a  peninsula.  Towards  the 
close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the  Jesuits  explored  it,  es- 
tablished it  as  an  important  mission,  made  great  progress  in 
civilizing  the  rude  and  ferocious  natives,  and  established  the 
same  dominion  over  them  that  they  did  over  the  natives  in 
Paraguay.  At  length  the  government,  growing  jealous  of 
the  Jesuits,  they  were  expelled  from  the  Spanish  dominions, 
and  Joseph  Galvez  was  sent  out  to  examine  the  province,  who 
^ave  a  favourable  account  of  the  country  and  of  the  pearl  fish- 
ery on  the  coast.  He  also  discovered  several  mines,  appa- 
rently valuable. 

Honduras,  and  the  Peninsula  of  Yucatan,  attracted  atten- 
tion principally  from  the  valuable  dye-woods  which  they  afford- 
ed, the  logwood  tree  being  produced  in  greater  abundance 
there  than  in  any  other  part  of  America.  After  having  long 
exclusively  enjoyed  the  profitable  logwood  trade,  the  Spaniards 
were  disturbed  in  it  by  some  adventurers  from  Jamaica,  who 
commenced  cutting  logwood  at  the  cape  forming  the  south- 
east promontory  of  Yucatan  ;  then  in  the  Bay  of  Campeachy, 
and  afterwards  in  the  Bay  of  Honduras.  These  encroach- 
ments alarmed  the  Spaniards,  and  they  endeavoured  to  stop 
them,  by  remonstrance,  negotiation,  and  by  force  ;  but  after  a. 
contention  for  half  a  century ,  the  fortune  of  war  and  naval  su- 
periority of  Britain,  enabled  her  to  extort  from  Spain  a  reluc- 
tant consent  to  the  existence  of  a  settlement  of  foreigners  in. 
the  heart  of  her  own  possessions.  Mortified,  however,  at  this 
concession,  she  attempted  to  counteract  its  consequences  by 
encouraging  the  cutting  of  logwood  on  the  west  coast  of  Yuca- 
tan, where  the  wood  was  of  superior  quality.  To  promote  this 
object,  she  permitted  the  importation  of  logwood  into  Spain, 


OF   SPANISH   AMERICA*  65 

Without  the  payment  of  any  duty,  by  which  means  this  conv 
merce  became  very  flourishing,  and  that  of  the  English,  in  the 
Bay  of  Honduras,  declined.  East  of  Honduras  were  the  pro- 
vinces of  Costa  Rica  and  Veragua,  which  were  much  neglect- 
ed by  the  Spaniards,  as  of  little  value. 

The  Vieeroyalty  of  Peru,  in  addition  to  the  Peruvian  terri- 
tories, comprehended  Chile,  the  conquest  of  which,  as  we  • 
have  seen,  was  first  attempted  by  Almagro  and  afterwards  by 
Valdivia,  both  of  whom  met  with  a  most  fierce  opposition  from 
the  natives,  and  the  latter  was  defeated  and  slain  ;  but  Villa- 
gra,  his  successor  in  command,  restored  victory  to  the  Spanish 
standard  ;  and  finally  the  district  on  the  sea  coast  was  subdu- 
ed, the  natives  continuing  masters  of  the  mountainous  re- 
gions ;  and  for  more  than  two  centuries  they  kept  up  hostili- 
ties with  their  Spanish  neighbours,  almost  without  interrup- 
tion, and  their  hostile  incursions  greatly  retarded  the  settle- 
ment of  the  most  fertile  country  in  America,  possessing  the 
most  delicious  climate  in  the  new  or  old  world  ;  for,  though 
bordering  on  the  torrid  zone,  it  is  exempt  both  from  the  ex- 
tremes of  heat  and  cold,  lying,  as  it  were,  under  the  shade  of 
the  Andes,  which  protects  it  on  the  east,  and  being  constant- 
ly refreshed  by  the  cooling  sea  breezes  from  the  west.  It  alse 
possesses  many  valuable  mines  ;  yet  with  all  these  advantages, 
at  the  end  of  more  than  two  centuries  from  its  conquest,  its 
whole  white  population  did  not  exceed  eighty  thousand  ;  but 
since  the  establishment  of  a  direct  intercourse  with  the  mother 
country  round  Cape  Horn,  it  has  realized  its  natural  advanta- 
ges, and  advanced  in  importance  accordingly. 

Attached  ttf  the  Vieeroyalty  of  Peru,  were  all  the  vast  re- 
gions claimed  by  Spain  east  of  the  Andes,  watered  by  the  Ri® 
de  la  Plata,  its  branches,  the  Colorado,  and  other  streams 
emptying  into  the  Atlantic.  The  River  de  la  Plata  and  the 
country  bordering  on  it,  was  first  discovered  by  Maggellan,  in 
the  year  1520.  The  fepajiish  territories  east  of  the  La  Plata, 
comprehending  the  province  of  Paraguay  and  some  other  dis- 
tricts, were,  for  centuries,  in  a  great  degree  undefined,  and  a 
subject  of  dispute  with  Portugal.  Paraguay  has  been  render- 
ed celebrated  for  the  extraordinary  missions  of  the  Jesuits^ 
and  the  authority  of  Spain  over  it  was  never  more  than  nom- 
inal. The  territory  west  of  the  La  Plata  was  divided  into  the 
provinces  of  Buenos  Ay  res  and  Tucuman. 

The  first  attempts  to  subjugate  and  settle  the  country  bor~ 
dering  on  the  La  Plata,  were  attended  with  unusual  difficulties! 
and  disasters  ;  after  the  lapse  of  more  than  two  centuries 
there  was  no  settlement  of  any  importance,  except  that  of 
Buenos  Ayres.  The  province  of  Tucuman,  and  most  of  tfco 

6* 


66 


SKETCH  OF   THE  HISTORY 


country  to  the  south  of  the  La  Plata,  is  a  prairie  or  plain  of 
vast  extent,  and  rich  beyond  conception  ;  being  constantly 
covered  with  verdure,  it  supports  an  immense  number  of  hor- 
ses and  cattle,  which  are  suffered  to  go  at  large,  and  breed, 
subsisting  without  the  care  or  oversight  of  man.  This  won- 
derful facility  of  raising  horses  and  cattle  has  afforded  a  profit- 
able trade  with  Peru,  by  supplying  them  with  domestic  ani- 
mals, and  likewise  a  lucrative  foreign  commerce  in  hides. 

The  province  of  Rio  de  la  Plata,  was  established  distinct 
from  that  of  Paraguay,  in  1620,  and  was  afterwards  called 
Buenos  Ayres.  The  town  of  Buenos  Ayres  was  founded  by 
Pedro  de  Mendoza,  in  1535,  but  was  abandoned  in  1538,  and 
its  inhabitants  removed  to  Assumption,  where  a  fort  had  been 
built  two  years  before,  by  Ayolas,  and  named  from  the  day  on 
which  he  fought  and  defeated  the  natives  on  the  spot  where 
it  was  erected.  Mendoza  returned  to  Spain,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded as  governor,  by  Ayolas,  and  on  his  death,  Irala  was 
chosen  to  succeed  him  ;  but  was  soon  deprived  of  his  author- 
ity by  Don  Alvarez,  who  arrived  with  a  commission  from 
Spain.  Of  the  three  thousand  Europeans  who  had  entered 
the  La  Plata,  six  hundred  only  remained  at  Assumption  ; 
the  rest  had  fallen  victims  to  the  climate,  the  ferocity  of  the 
Savages,  and  the  hardships  to  which  they  had  been  exposed. — 
Alvarez  was  seized  by  Irala,  and  sent  to  Spain  in  1544.  The 
city  of  Assumption  was  erected  into  a  bishopric  in  1547  ;  but 
the  bishop  did  not  arrive  until  1554,  when  Irala  received  a 
commission  as  governor.  In  1557,  Cuidad  Real  was  founded 
in  the  province  of  Guayra,  as  .an  encomierida,  within  which 
forty  thousand  Indians  were  brought  into  habits  of  industry  ; 
and  a  few  years  after  the  encomienda  of  Santa  Cruz  de  la 
Sierra,  in  the  province  of  Chiquitos,  which  comprised  sixty 
thousand  native  inhabitants,  was  established.  Irala  died  in 
1557,  and  named  Gondaies  de  Mendoza,  iieutenarit  general 
and  commander  of  the  province.  His  death  which  was  in  one 
year  after,  was  followed  by  civil  dissHntions. 

In  the  year  1586,  the  Jesuits  first  appeared  in  Paraguay, 
and  in  1609,  father  Torrez,  their  provincial,  obtained  authori- 
ty from  the  governor  of  the  province,  to  form  the  converted 
Indians  into  townships,  to  be  independent  of  the  Spanish  set- 
tlements. They  only  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  the 
king  of  Spain  ;  this  power  was  confirmed  by  Philip  III.  of 
Spain.  Du/ing  twenty  years,  a  great  number  of  the  natives 
were  reduced  to  habits  of  industry,  by  the  labours  of  the  Je- 
suits ;  but  in  1630,  tfcey  were  attacked  by  the  Paulists  or 
Mamelukes,  and  in  two  years  sixty  thousand  were  destroyed 
or  carried  off.  To  defend  their  settlements,  in  1639,  the  Je- 


OP    SPANISH   AMERICA.  67 

suits  obtained  authority  from  Spain,  to  imbody  and  arm  their 
Indian  converts  in  the  manner  of  Europeans.  The  Jesuits 
employed  their  converts  in  other  pursuits  ;  in  1668,  they  re- 
built the  city  of  Santa  Fe,  and  the  following  year,  five  hun- 
dred of  them  worked  on  the  fortifications  and  the  cathedral  of 
Buenos  Ayres. 

In  1 580,  Buenos  Ayres  was  rebuilt  by  the  governor  of  Par* 
aguay,  from  which  time,  it  gradually  emerged  from  obscurity 
into  an  important  town,  and  became  the  seat  of  the  viceroyai- 
ty.  The  Portuguese,  attempted  -a  settlement  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  La  Plata,  in  1679,  when  Garro,  governor  of  the 
province  of  Rio  de  la  Plata,  by  order  of  the  viceroy  of  Peru, 
expelled  the  Portuguese,  and  levelled  their  fort  to  the  gronnd. 
This  settlement  was  for  a  long  time,  a  subject  of  dispute  be- 
tween the  two  nations,  but  in  1778,  it  was  ceded  to  Spain. — 
Civil  dissentions  arose  at  Assumption  ;  Bon  Diego,  the  gov- 
ernor, was  obliged  to  flee  ;  but  was  reinstated  in  1722,  yet 
soon  after  seized  by  Antequeraf  and  confined  as  a  prisoner. 
Antequera  had  been  sent  from  Lima  as  a  commissioner,  to  in- 
quire into  the  condition  of  Paraguay,  and  finding  the  adminis- 
tration corrupt,  he  undertook  to  reform  it  arid  to  introduce  a 
representative  government.  He  met  with  resistance  not  only 
from  the  governor,  but  his  patriotic  exertions  and  liberal  prin- 
ciples roused  the  jealousy,  and  brought  upon  him  the  hostility 
of  the. viceroy,  who  sent  a  body  of  troops  from  Peru,  to  op- 
pose him  and  check  his  innovations.  These  troops  were  de- 
ieated  by  Antequera  who  Centered  the  city  in  triumph. 

But  the  governor  of  Buenos  Ayres,  having  marched  against 
him,  and  bem'g  deserted  by  his  adherents,  he  fled  to  a  convent, 
and  was  afterwards  seized  and  sent  a  prisoner  to  Lima.  In 
1725,  tranquillity  was  re-established,  but  was  of  short  contin- 
uance ;  a  new  governor  being  appointed,  a  faction  refused  to 
admit  him  into  the  city  ;  Mompo,  the  leader  of  the  malecon- 
tents,  was  seized  and  sent  to  Buenos  Ayres. 

Antequera  having  been  condemned  for  treason,  was  execu- 
ted in  1731,  at  Lima,  which  occasioned  great  excitement  at 
Assumption,  as  his  popularity  was  so  great  that  he  was  canon- 
ised ?»>s  a  martyr  to  liberty.  The  dissentions  continued  until 
1735,  when  Zabala,  governor  of  Buenos  Ayres,  succeeded  in 
re-establishing  tranquillity,  and  correcting  the  abuses  which 
had  crept  into  the  government. 

The  increasing  prosperity  of  the  Jesuits,  began  to  excite 
prejudices  and  jealousies  ;  various  accusations  were  made 
against  them  ;  but  on  examination,  most  of  them  were  found 
groundless,  and  they  were  confirmed  in  their  rights,  in  174  6, 
by  a  royal  decree.  Their  prosperity  and  povrer^  however^  soon 


68  SKETCH  OP  THE  HISTORY 

after  began  to  decline,  and  the  expulsion'  of  their  order  from 
Spain,  in  1767,  was  followed  by  the  subversion  of  their  domin- 
ion in  America.  Their  possessions  were  annexed  to  the  gov- 
ernment of  Paraguay,  at  which  time  they  had  seven  hundred 
sixty-nine  thousand  three  hundred  fifty-three  horn  cattle,  nine- 
ty-four thousand  nine  hundred  eighty-three  horses,  and  two 
hundred  twenty-one  thousand  five  hundred  thirty-seven  sheep* 

The  erection  of  the  viceroyalty  of  Rio  de  la  Plata,  led  to 
the  establishment  of  the  government  at  Buenos  Ayres,  and 
promoted  the  prosperity  of  that  city,  and  all  the  provinces  on 
the  La  Plata,  and  west  of  the  Andes.  This  measure  was 
followed  by  one  equally  liberal  and  enlightened  in  1778,  which 
in  a  great  degree,  removed  the  restrictions  on  commerce,  and 
opened  a  free  trade  with  the  northern  country  and  the  interior 
of  Peru.  From  this  period,  Buenos  Ayres  began  to  acquire 
that  importance  and  rank,  which  it  is  entitled  to  maintain, 
from  its  valuable  position  for  commerce,  and  its  rich  interior 
country.  Its  trade  has  rapidly  increased,  and  the  general 
commerce  of  the  La  Plata.  It  was  promoted  by  a  royal  ordi- 
nance adopted  in  1794,  permitting  salted  meat  and  tallow,  to 
be  exported  to  Spain  and  the  other  colonies  free  of  duty. 

At  so  early  a  period  as  the  year  1511,  Ferdinand  establish* 
ed  a  tribunal  for  conducting  the  affairs  of  his  American  settle- 
ments, called  the  Council  of  the  Indies  ;  and  in  1 524,  it  was 
new  modeled  and  improved  by  Charles  V.  It  possessed  juris- 
diction over  every  department  of  government  in  Spanish 
America  ;  framed  the  laws  and  regulations  respecting  the  col- 
onies ;  made  all  the  appointments  for  America,  reserved  to 
the  crown  ;  and  all  officers,  from  the  Viceroys  to  the  lowest, 
were  accountable  to  the  Council  of  the  Indies  for  their  official 
conduct.  The  king  is  always  supposed  to  be  present  in  this 
council,  and  its  meetings  were  held  where  he  resides.  No 
law,  relative  to  American  affairs,  could  be  adopted  without 
the  concurrence  of  two  thirds  of  the  council.  All  appeals 
from  the  decisions  of  the  highest  tribunals  in  America,  the 
Audiencia,  or  Court  of  Audience,  were  made  to  the  Council 
of  the  Indies. 

The  colonial  system  of  Spain  over  her  American  (.^min- 
ions, was  founded  on  the  principle,  that  these  dominions  were 
vested  in  the  crown,  not  in  the  nation  ;  which  was  assumed  on 
no  better  authority,  than  the  bull  of  Pope  Alexander  VI.  be- 
stowing on  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  all  the  'countries  which 
they  might  discover,  west  of  a  given  latitude.  Hence,  the 
Spanish  possessions  in  America,  were  regarded  as  the  person- 
al property  of  the  sovereign.  The  authority  of  the  original 
adventurers,  commanders  and  governors,  by  whom  the  country 


OF  SPANISH     AJVIERICA.  69 

was  discovered,  and  subjected  to  the  dominion  of  Spain,  was 
constituted  by,  and  they  were  accountable  to,  the  king,  and 
•removable  by  him  at  pleasure.  All  grants  of  lands  were  made 
by  the  sovereign,  and  if  they  failed  from  any  cause,  they  re- 
verted to  the  crown  again.  All  political  and  civil  power, 
centered  in  the  king,  and  was  executed  by  such  persons,  and 
in  such  manner,  as  the  will  of  the  sovereign  might  suggest, 
wholly  independent,  not  only  of  the  colonies,  but  of  the  Span- 
ish nation.  The  only  civil  privilege  allowed  to  the  colonists,, 
was  strictly  municipal,  and  confined  to  the  regulation  of  their 
interior  police,  and  commerce  in  the  cities  and  towns,  for 
which  purpose  they  made  their  own  local  regulations  or  laws, 
and  appointed  town  and  city  magistrates.  But  this  single  ray 
of  liberty,  must  of  necessity  be  tolerated,  and  has  never  been 
extinct  in  the  most  despotic  states.  The  Spanish  American 
governments,  were  not  merely  despotic  like  those  of  Russia, 
or  Turkey,  but  they  were  a  more  dangerous  kind  of  despot- 
ism, as  the  absolute  power  of  the  sovereign  was  not  exercised 
by  himself,  but  by  deputy. 

At  first,  as  has  been  stated,  the  dominions  of  the  Spanish 
crown  in  the  new  world,  were  divided  for  the  purpose  of  gov- 
ernment, into  two  great  divisions  or  viceroyalties,  New  Spain 
and  Peru.  Afterwards,  as  the  country  became  more  settled, 
the  viceroyalty  of  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota  was  created,  composed 
of  the  kingdoms  of  New  Granada,  Terra  Firma,  and  the  pro- 
vince of  Quito,  and  still  later  that  of  Rio  de  la  Plata.  A  dep- 
uty or  viceroy  was  appointed  to  preside  over  each  of  these, 
governments,  who  was  the  representative  of  his  sovereign, 
and  possessed  all  his  prerogatives  within  his  jurisdiction.  His 
authority  was  as  supreme  as  that  of  his  sovereign,  over  every 
department  of  government,  civil,  military,  and  criminal.  He 
appointed  most  of  the  important  officers  of  his  government, 
and  supplied  the  vacancies  occasioned  by  death  of  those  ap- 
pointed by  the  crown.  His  court  was  formed  on  the  model  of 
that  of  Madrid,  and  displayed  an  equal  and  often  superior  de- 
gree of  magnificence  and  state.  He  maintained  horse  and 
toot  guards,  a  regular  household  establishment,  and  all  the 
ensigns  and  trappings  of  royalty.  His  government  was  form- 
ed on  the  same  model  as  that  of  Spain,  and  the  tribunals  that 
assisted  in  its  administration,  were  similar  to  those  of  the  pa- 
rent country  ;  the  appointments  to  which,  were  sometimes 
made  by  the  viceroy,  and  at  others  by  the  king,  but  all  were 
subject  to  the  deputy's  authority,  and  amenable  to  his  jurisdic* 
tion.  The  administration-  of  justice  was  entrusted  to  tribunals, 
called  Audiences,  formed  on  the  model  of  the  Spanish  court  ot* 
chancery.  One  of  these  courts  was  established  io  every 


70  SKETCH  OF  THE  HISTORY 

vince,  and  consisted  of  a  number  of  judges  proportioned  to 
its  extent,  and  the  business  to  be  done  ;  they  had  jurisdiction 
over  both  civil  and  criminal  causes.  The  viceroy  was  prohib- 
ited from  interfering  with  the  decisions  of  these  judicial  tribu- 
nals, and  in  some  instances  they  could  bring  his  regulations 
under  their  review,  and  present  remonstrances,  or  carry  the 
matter  before  the  king  and  the  council  of  the  Indies,  which 
was  the  only  particular  in  which  there  was  any  intermediate 
power  between  him  and  the  people,  subject  to  his  authority. 
On  the  death  of  a  viceroy,  the  supreme  power  vested  in  the 
court  of  audience,  and  the  senior  judge,  assisted  by  his  asso- 
ciates, exercised  all  the  functions  of  the  vacant  office.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  council  of  the  Indies,  in  which  was  reposed  the 
supreme  power,  as  to  the  civil,  ecclesiastical,  military,  and 
commercial  affairs  of  America,  there  was  established  as  early 
as  1 501 ,  a  board  of  trade  at  Seville,  called  Casa  de  la  Contrac- 
tion. It  takes  cognizance  of  whatever  related  to  the  commer- 
cial intercourse  with  America,  regulated  the  export  and  im- 
port cargoes,  and  the  inspection  ;  the  freights  of  the  ships, 
and  the  time  of  the  sailing  of  the  fleets,  and  decide  judicially 
on  all  matters,  both  civil  and  criminal,  growing  out  of  the 
commercial  transactions  between  Spain  and  her  American 
possessions.  The  doings  and  decisions  of  this  board,  might  be 
reviewed  by  the  council  of  the  Indies. 

The  fundamental  principles  of  the  Spanish  colonial  system, 
were  different  from  those  of  Great  Britain,  as  it  respected  its 
American  dominions  ;  although  this  difference  will  be  found 
on  examination  to  depend  almost  entirely  on  the  different  con- 
stitutions of  the  two  countries.  Great  Britain,  as  well  as 
Spain,  regarded  the  countries  in  America,  discovered  by  her 
subjects,  as  belonging  to  the  crown,  rather  than  to  the  nation, 
and  all  grants  and  patents  were  made  by  the  king,  without  the 
concurrence  of  parliament  ;  and  the  rights  and  powers  of  the 
grantees  in  the  proprietary  governments,  were  also  created  by 
the  crown.  The  charter  governments  were  likewise  estab- 
lished by  the  crown,  and  the  rights  and  privileges  allowed  to 
the  colonists,  and  the  prerogatives  reserved  to  the  king,  were 
dictated  by  the  will  of  the  sovereign.  The  authority  of  par- 
liament, as  the  organ  of  the  nation,  over  the  colonies,  does 
not  at  first  appear  to  have  been  exercised,  and  although  this 
was  afterwards  attempted,  it  was  never  fully  allowed  or  acqui- 
esced in  by  the  colonies.  It  was  the  exercise  of  this  authority 
that  led  to  the  difficulties  between  the  parent  state  and  its  col* 
onies,  which  resulted  in  a  separation.  In  the  colonial  gov- 
ernments established  by  Britain  in  America,  very  important 
civil  privileges  were  allowed  to  the  colonists ?  but  their  rights 


OF   SPANISH   AMERICA,  ?! 

not  equal  to  those  of  English  subjects  at  home,  and  the 
difference  was  to  the  same  extent  as  the  authority  exercised 
Over  them  by  parl'ament;  the  prerogatives  of  the  sovereign 
being  at  least  as  great  as  respected  his  colonial  subjects,  as  at- 
home.  The  Spanish  American  colonies  possessed  no  political 
privileges  ;  their  only  civil  rights  were  purely  municipal  ;  the 
authority  of  the  crown  was  absolute  in  the  colonial  govern- 
ments, but  scarcely  more  so  than  it  was  in  the  parent  state, 
and  it  could  hardly  have  been  expected  that  subjects  in  dis- 
tant colonies  would  have  been  allowed  privileges  which  were 
not  enjoyed  by  those  at  home.  As  it  respects  constitutional 
er  political  rights,  the  Spanish  colonists,  enjoyed  essentially 
the  same  as  the  subjects  of  Old  Spain,  yet  the  exercise 
I  of  the  power  of  the  sovereign  being  by  deputy,  and  at 
a  great  distance,  it  was  much  more  oppressive,  and  exposed 
to  greater  abuses.  As  it  respects  the  equality  of  privileges, 
between  the  inhabitants  of  the  colonies  and  those  of  the  pa- 
lent  country,  the  Spanish  colonists  stood  on  a  better  footing 
than  the  English.  If  the  colonies  were  absolutely  and  en- 
tirely subject  to  the  government  of  the  parent  state,  it  was 
not,  perhaps,  materal  to  them,  whether  this  governing  power 
resided  in  the  crown  or  jointly  in  the  crown  and  the  nation, 
In  either  case  they  were  slaves. 

But  the  different  constitutions  of  the  two  nations,  occasioned 
I  a  corresponding  difference  in  the   government  of  their   colo- 
l  nies.     The  power  of  the  Sovereign  in  Spain,  being  absolute, 
^  the  same  authority  was  exercised  over  his  dominions  in  Amer- 
ica ;  but  the  authority  of  the  King  of  England  being  limited, 
and  the  government  a  mixed  one,  in  wrhich  the  people  by  their 
:  representatives  participated,  similar  systems  were  established 
)•  in  the  British  dominions  in  the  new  world.     In  all  their  colo- 
;  nies  the   representative  principle  was  introduced,    and   local 
I  legislatures   were  established  which  exercised  the   ordinary 
I  powers  of  legislation,  the  executive  power  remaining  in  the 
^sovereign,    which  he  exercised  in  b'ome  of  the  colonies  by 
Ideputy,  in  others  granted  it  to  propretors,  and  even  in  some 
•<  ef  the  minor  colonies,  the  executive  power  was  exercised  by 
'.  governors  chosen  by  the  people,  and   the  judicial   power,   by 
judges  appointed  by  the   governors   or   colonial  assemblies. 
Still,  however,  the  king,  and  ultimately  the  nation  or   parlia- 
ment claimed  an  undefined  and  undefinable  sovereignty  over 
the  colonies,  where  he  did  not  exercise  the  executive  power, 
also  over  those,  where  proprietary   governments  were  estab- 
lished.    The  fundamental  principle  of  the  British  colonial 
system  was,   that  the  colonies  were  subordinate  states,  and 
that  the  parent  country  possessed  the  right  of  sovereignty 


72  SKETCH    OF    THE   HISTOR¥ 

over  them ;  but  whether  this  sovereign  power  resided  m  tfle 
king,  or  in  parliament,  representing  the  nation,  or  how  it  was 
io  be  exercised,  does  not  appear  to  have  been  determined. 
Legislation,  when  unrestrained,  constitutes  the  sovereign 
power  in  every  state.  But,  while  Britain  claimed  this  powet 
over  her  colonies,  she  did  not  until  a  late  period,  presume  to 
legislate  for  them,  further  than  to  regulate  their  foreign  com 
merce,  and  a  few  prohibitory  acts  respecting  manufactures. 
The  sovereignty  of  Great  Britain,  whether  considered  as  resi- 
ding in  the  king,  or  the  nation,  was  rather  negative  than  posi- 
tive, as  it  was  never  pretended  by  the  most  ardent  advocates 
for  the  prerogatives  of  the  mother  country,  that  he  should  ex- 
ercise for  the  colonies,  the  general  powers  of  legislation. 
Neither  the  nature  or  extent  of  this  negative  authority,  or  the 
manner  of  its  exercise,  was  ever  defined,  either  conventionally 
or  by  the  practice  of  the  government.  The  British  colonial 
system  was  complex,  vague,  and  inconsistent  with  itself,  and 
tended  inevitably  to  one  of  two  results  ;  the  establishment  of 
the  power  of  the  parent  State,  to  legislate  for  its  colonies  "  in 
all  cases  whatsoever,"  or  their  entire  independence  ;  hap- 
pily for  the  Americans,  and  the  world,  the  latter  occurred. 

The  Spanish  colonial  system  was  altogether  more  simple,  as 
there  was  no  intermediate  powers  between  the  sovereign  and 
the  people  at  home,  there  was  no  necessity  for  any  in  the  col- 
onies ;  the  sovereign  power,  so  far  as  the  theory  of  government 
was  concerned,  was  the  same  in  America  as  in  Spain  ;  it  re- 
sided in  the  king  in  both,  and  in  both  was  absolute.  Spanish 
America  was  originally  considered  as  a  kingdom  independent 
in  itself,  and  united  to  Spain  only,  by  both  countries  being  un- 
der the  government  of  one  king.  By  the  laws  of  the  Indies, 
all  acts  relating  to  the  conquest  of  America  were  expun- 
ged, and  was  formerly  united  to  the  crown  of  Castile  by 
Charles  Vth,  in  1519,  and  confirmed  by  several  of  his  succes- 
sors. It  is  said  by  Baron  Humboldt,  that  the  kings  of  Spain, 
"by  assuming  the  title  of  king  of  the  Indies,  have  considered 
their  possessions  in  America,  rather  as  integral  parts  of  the 
Spanish  monarchy,  dependant  on  the  crown  of  Castile,  than 
as  colonies  in  the  sense,  in  which  that  word  has  been  under- 
stood by  the  commercial  nations  of  Europe  since  the  sixteenth 
eentury.* 

But  the  colonies  both  of  Britain  and  Spain  were  essentially 
different  from  those  of  the  ancients,  and  established  on  new 
principles.  The  distant  settlements  of  the  Greeks,  were 
lather  migrations  than  colonies,  similar  to  the  swarms  of  bar- 

*  Political  Essay  on  New  Spain. 


OF    SPANISH    AMERICA, 


73 


banans  from  the  north  which  settled  in  the  south  of  Europe. 
The  parent  state  not  expecting  to  derive  any  advantage  from, 
did  not  attempt  to  maintain  any  authority  over  its  colonies,  and 
the  only  connexion  between  them,  was  that  arising  from  their 
having  a  common  origin.  The  colonies  of  the  Romans  were 
military  detachments  stationed  in  conquered  provinces,  to 
keep  them  in  subjection,  in  which  case  the  authority  of  the 
mother  country  was  maintained  over  them,  and  the  province 
which  continued  dependant.  The  discovery  of  America  and 
the  countries  beyond  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  gave  rise  to  a 
new  system  of  colonizing,  the  object  which  was  to  promote 
the  commerce  and  prosperity  of  the  parent  nation. 

Whatever  difference  there  may  have  been  in  the  principles 
on  which  the  colonies  of  Spain  and  those  of  Great  Britain 
were  planted  and  governed,  there  was  little  in  the  policy  of 
the  two  nations  relative  to  their  colonial  possessions  in  Amer- 
ica. 

Both,  regarded  their  colonies  as  subordinate  to  the  parent 
state,  and  attempted  to  render  them  contributary  to  its  inter- 
est and  prosperity.  This  policy  seems  to  grow  out  of  the  re- 
lations which  subsist  between  colonies  and  their  mother  coun- 
try ;  as  the  original  object  of  planting  them  since  the  six- 
teenth century,  has  been  to  benefit  the  colonizing  country  ;  to 
drain  off  a  surplus  or  dangerous  population,  to  draw  a  direct 
tribute  from  them  under  some  form  of  taxation,  or  for  the  in- 
terests of  commerce. 

It  was  the  policy  of  the  Spanish  sovereigns,  or  government,  as 
to  their  American  colonies,  to  render  them,  in  every  way  that 
could  be  done,  contributary  to  the  power  and  prosperity  of 
Spain.  In  the  grants  of  the  country,  made  to  the  first  ad- 
venturers, the  Spanish  monarchs  reserved  one-fifth  of  the 
gold  and  silver  that  might  be  obtained,  and  for  a  considerable 
period  the  precious  metals  were  the  only  objects  that  attracted 
attention,  either  in  the  colonies  or  Old  Spain.  The  right  of 
the  Sovereign  to  a  share  of  the  products  of  the  mines,  was 
ever  after  maintained,  and  it  was  the  intention  of  Spain  to  con- 
fine the  industry  of  the  colonies  to  milling,  for  two  reasons  : 
one,  the  revenue  derived  to  the  crown  from  this  source,  and 
the  other,  to  prevent  such  branches  of  agriculture  as  might 
interfere  with  the  products  of  Spain.  The  cultivation  of  the 
vine  and  olive  were  at  first  prohibited  in  America,  and  after- 
wards allowed  in  Peru  and  Chile,  in  consequence  of  the  diffi- 
culty of  conveying  such  bulky  articles  as  wine  and  oil  across 
the  isthmus  to  Panama  ;  and  these  colonies  were  not  permit- 
ted to  export  the  products  of  the  vine  or  olive  to  those 
parts  of  Spanish  America  which  could  obtain  thorn  from  Spaia* 
VOL.  I.  7 


74  SKETCH    OF    THE    HISTORY 

And  for  this  privilege,  of  cultivating  tobacco  which  was  raised 
in  other  parts  of  Spanish  America,  but  under  regulations  of  a 
royal  monopoly.  The  same  jealousy  crippled  the  industry  of 
the  colonies  in  other  departments  ;  several  kinds  of  manafac- 
tures  were  prohibited,  which  it  was  thought  might  prove  de- 
trimental to  the  mother  country.  The  commercial  restric- 
tions imposed  on  the  colonies  were  still  more  rigid  and  intol- 
erable. In  pursuance  of  the  maxim  that  the  colonies  were, 
in  every  possible  way,  to  be  rendered  contributory  to  the  in- 
terests of  Spain,  without  regarding  their  own,  they  were  deni- 
ed all  commerce  with  every  other  portion  of  the  world  ;  their 
own  productions  must  all  be  carried  to  Spain,  in  the  first  in- 
stance, wherever,  might  be  the  place  of  their  consumption, 
and  all  their  own  wants  must  be  supplied  by  the  parent  state  ; 
and  even  this  direct  commerce  they  were  not  permitted  to  car- 
ry on  themselves  ;  no  vessel,  owned  in  the  colonies,  was  ever 
allowed  to  carry  to  Europe  the  produce  of  the  country  to 
which  it  belonged.  All  the  trade  with  the  colonies  was  carried 
on  in  Spanish  bottoms,  and  under  such  regulations  as  sub- 
jected them  to  great  inconvenience.  Not  only  was  every  spe- 
cies of  commerce  with  America,  by  foreigners,  prohibited 
under  the  severest  penalties,  and  confiscation  and  death  in- 
flicted on  the  inhabitants  who  had  temerity  to  trade  with  them, 
but  no  foreigner  was  suffered  to  enter  the  colonies  without  ex- 
press permission.  Even  the  commerce  of  one  colony  with  a^ 
nother  was  either  prohibited  or  trammeled  with  intolerable  re- 
strictions. 

Thus  was  Spanish  America  shut  up  from  the  world,  crip- 
pled in  its  growth,  kept,  in  leading-strings,  and  in  a  perpetual 
state  of  minority  ;  and  whilst  chastised  with  the  lash  of  a  jea* 
lous  and  unfeeling  master,  was  insulted  by  being  reminded  of 
his  parental  affection  and  relationship.  These  impolitic  and 
unjust  measures,  founded  in  a  spirit  of  selfishness  and  jea- 
lousy, together  with  the  hardships  which  attend  the  planting 
of  new  settlements,  so  checked  the  spirit  of  emigration,  that 
at  the  expiration  of  sixty  years  from  the  first  discovery  of 
America,  the  number  of  Spaniards,  in  all  their  settlements, 
did  not  exceed  fifteen  thousand. 

An  ecclesiastical  establishment  was  instituted  in  Spanish 
America,  as  an  auxiliary  branch  of  the  government,  on  a  simi- 
lar model  to  that  in  Spain,  and  was  extremely  burdensome 
to  a  young  and  growing  state.  At  so  early  a  period  as  the 
year  1501,  the  payment  of  tithes  was  required,  and  laws  made 
to  enforce  it.  The  exactions  of  the  clergy  were  extended  not 
only  to  every  article  of  produce,  but  also  to  those  which  com- 
prised a  portion  of  manufacturing  industry,  such  as  sugar,  in- 


OF    SPANISH    AMERICA.  75 

/ 

di£0,  and  cochineal ;  and  these  legal  burdens  were  greatly 
increased  by  the  bigotry  of  the  colonists  and  their  fondness 
for  external  parade  and  pomp  in  religion,  which  made  them 
easy  dupes  of  the  clergy,  who  drained  their  wealth  from  pro- 
ductive branches  of  industry,  to  endow  churches  and  monas- 
teries. Pope  Julian  II.  conferred  on  Ferdinand  and  his  suc- 
cessors the  patronage  and  disposal  of  all  ecclesiastical  bene- 
fices in  America,  so  that  the  Spanish  sovereign  became  the 
head  of  the  church  in  America,  and  the  administrator  of  its 
revenues,  a  prerogative  which  he  did  not  possess  at  home. 
The  bulls  of  the  Roman  Pontiff  could  not  be  admitted  into 
Spanish  America  until  they  had  been  examined  and  approved 
by  the  king  and  the  Council  of  the  Indies.  Trie  hierarchy 
was  as  imposing  as  in  Spain,  and  its  dominion  and  influence 
greater  ;  the  arch-bishops,  bishops,  and  other  dignitaries,  en- 
joyed large  revenues,  and  the  ecclesiastical  establishment  was 
splendid  and  magnificent.  The  lower  orders  of  the  clergy 
consisted  of  the  curate,  or  parish  priests,  the  Doctrineros, 
who  had  the  charge  of  such  districts  as  were  inhabited  by  In- 
dians, who  were  subject  to  the  Spanish  government,  and  the 
Missioneras,  or  missionaries,  who  were  employed  in  convert- 
ing the  Indios  Bravos,  or  fierce  tribes.  An  inconsiderate 
zeal  for  the  establishment  of  monasteries  was  disclosed  at  an 
early  period,  and  from  the  influence  of  the  regular  ecclesias- 
tics, these  institutions  were  multiplied  to  a  pernicious  extent, 
in  a  new  country,  where  every  encouragement  ought  to  have 
been  afforded  to  the  increase  of  population. 

Most  of  the  .clergy  in  America  were  regular,  and  many  of 
the  highest  honours  and  most  lucrative  preferments  were  in 
their  possession.  Great  numbers  came  out  as  missionaries, 
and  most  of  them  in  quest  of  liberty,  wealth,  or  distinction. 
To  certain  orders  of  missionaries,  the  Pope  allowed  the  privi 
leges  of  accepting  parochial  charges  and  receiving  the  emolu- 
ments, without  depending  on  the  bishop  of  the  diocess,  or  be- 
ing amenable  to  him.  Some  of  them,  in  violation  of  their 
monastic  vows,  openly  engaged  in  commercial  pursuits  ;  oth- 
ers amassed  wealth  by  oppressing  the  natives,  whom  they  pre- 
tended to  instruct  and  Christanize  ;  and  notwithstanding  their 
vow  of  continency,  many  of  them  were  dissolute  and  licentious, 
in  a  degree  almost  exceeding  belief. 

The  success  of  the  missionaries,  in  converting  the  natives, 
was  almost  entirely  deceptive  ;  they  made  use  of  the  same 
unjustifiable  means  that  have  been  resorted  to  by  the  Jesuits 
in  other  parts  of  the  world,  and  with  like  success.  To  ren- 
der the  new  religion  more  palatable,  and  to  introduce  it  with 
greater  facility,  they  pretended  that  there  was  a  similarity  be- 


76  SKETCH    OF    THE    HISTORY 

tween  the  doctrines  and  mysteries  of  Christianity  and  the 
crude  notions  of  their  own  barbarous  superstitions.  Being,  in 
many  instances,  overawed  by  the  power  of  their  conqueror?, 
and  excited  by  the  example  of  their  chiefs,  multitudes  expres- 
sed a  reluctant  consent  to  embrace  a  religion  of  which  they 
were  entirely  ignorant,  and  were  instantly  baptized  by  the 
missionaries.  By  such  means  as  these,  by  fraud  and  force,  in 
the  course  of  a  few  years  after  the  reduction  of  the  Mexican 
Empire,  more  than  four  millions  of  the  natives  were  baptized  ; 
but  they  remained  the  same,  or  at  least  no  better,  for  such 
spurious  conversion  ;  they  were  not  entirely  ignorant  of  the 
doctrines  and  duties  of  Christianity,  but  retained  all  their  ven- 
eration for  their  ancient  superstitions.  This  mixture  of  Chris- 
tianity with  their  own  superstitious  rites,  was  transmitted  to 
their  posterity,  and  has  never  been  eradicated.  One  ecclesi- 
astic baptized,  in  one  day,  five  thousand  Mexicans,  and  stop- 
ped only  when  he  had  become  so  exhausted  as  to  be  unable  to 
lift  up  his  hands.  Other  missionaries,  less  successful,  declar- 
ed that  the  natives  were  too  little  removed  above  the  brutes 
to  become  Christians  ;  and  a  council  was  held  at  Lima,  which 
decreed  that  they  had  not  sufficient  understanding  to  be  ad- 
mitted to  the  Sacrament  of  the  Eucharist.  This  decree  was 
abrogated  by  Paul  III.  who,  in  1537,  promulged  a  decree  de- 
claring them  rational  creatures,  and  entitled  to  the  privileges 
of  Christians.  That  infernal  engine  of  hierarchal  power,  the 
Inquisition,  was  established  in  America,  by  the  pious  zeal  of 
Philip  II.  in  the  year  1570.  The  natives,  from  their  incapaci- 
ty, were  exempted  from  the  jurisdiction  of  this  horrid  tribu- 
nal. 

If  the  Spaniards  rendered  little  benefit  to  the  natives  by 
their  attempts  to  Christianize  them,  their  conduct  towards 
them,  in  other  respects,  was  severe  and  oppressive  in  the  ex- 
treme. 

The  views  of  the  Spaniards,  with  respect  to  the  natives, 
were  entirely  different  from  those  of  the  English,  in  the  Amer- 
ican colonies.  In  the  latter,  the  natives  were  either  induced 
peaceably  to  cede  their  lands  and  retire  farther  into  the  inte- 
rior of  the  continent,  or  from  the  successive  hostilities  which 
arose  were  exterminated  or  dispensed.  As  the  European  set- 
tlements extended,  the  natives,  who  had  for  ages  been  "  lords 
of  the  soil,"  gradually  retired,  disposed  of  their  lands,  or  had 
them  wrested  from  them  by  war,  and  sought  new  abodes,. 
where,  depending  on  the  chase,  they  might  obtain  an  easier 
subsistence.  They  melted  away  before  the  sun  of  civilization 
like  the  dew  of  the  morning,  without  leaving  any  of  their  num- 
ber behind,  or  scarcely  a  trace  of  their  former  existence.  Not 


*'F    SPANISH    AMERICA.  77 

only  thousands  of  individuals,  but  numerous  tribes  or  nations, 
win  lit  say  with  Logan,  the  Mingo  Chief,  "  not  a,  drop  of  our 
blood  flows  in  the  vuius  of  any  living  creature,"  inhabiting  the 
land  of  our  fathers.  The  English  Colonists  did  not  originally 
claim  the  country  on  the  ground  of  conquest ;  and  in  the  sub- . 
sequent  wars  that  arose,  although  the  natives  were  defeated 
and  scattered,  they  were  not  subjugated  ;  they  were  too  fierce 
and  warlike  to  submit  their  necks  to  tho  yoke  of  the  conquer- 
ors, and  become  their  vassals.  As  they  subsisted  by  hunting, 

j|had  no  towns,  nor  any  interest  in  the  soli,  there  was  little  that 
attached  them  to  their  country,  and  less  that  obstructed  their 
migration.  The  conquests  made,  were  only  of  the  country, 
not  of  its  inhabitants.  But  the  discoverers  and  conquerors  of 
Spanish  America,  claimed  the  country  on  the  ground  of  con- 
quest ;  and  as  the  natives,  particularly  in  Mexico  and  Peru, 
lived  in  villages  and  towns,  subsisted  by  agriculture,  and  had 
acquired  private  property  in  the  soil,  and  were  very  populous, 
it  was  difficult  if  not  impossible  for  them  to  migrate  ;  and  from 
the  modes  of  civilized  life,  and  of  living  in  fixed  habitations 
which  had  been  established,  they  could  not  at  once  revert 
back  to  the  savage  state,  arid  trust  to  the  precarious  subsis- 
tence of  the  chase. 

The  Spanish  adventurers  not  only  conquered  the  country, 
but  subjugated  its  inhabitants,  particularly  in  Mexico  and  Pe- 
ru, and  extending  the  same  right  of  conquest  to  both,  they  re- 
duced the  natives  to  a  state  of  servitude.  As  early  as  the 
year  1499,  Columbus,  to  avoid  the  consequences  of  a  disaiFec- 
tioii  among  his-ibliowers,  granted  lands,  and  distributed  a  cer- 
tain number  of  Indians  among  them,  who  .were  required  to  cul- 
tivate a  certain  quantity  of  ground  each,  for  thuir  masters. 
This  was  the  origin  of  the  fe-partimientys,  or  distribution  of 
Indians,  winch  was  afterwards  introduced  into  all  the  Spanish 
settlements,  and  was  the  fruitful  source  of  innumerable  calam- 
ities, which  wasted  that  unhappy  and  injured  people.  Kvery 
where  they  were  seized  upon  and  compelled  to  follow  the  ar- 
mies to  carry  their  baggage,  to  work  in  the  mines,  to  cultivate 
the  earth,  to  carry  burdens  for  the  want  of  domestic  animals, 
and  to  perform  all  menial  and  laborious  services.  Whether 
employed  in  the  mines,  in  agriculture,  or  other  situations,  they 
were  required  to  perform  stated  tasks  much  beyond  their  abil- 
ities, and  being  unaccustomed  to  regular  labour,  thousands 

'•sunk  under  the  accumulated  burdens  and  hardships  to  winch 
they  were  subjected  by  their  unfeeling  and  .rapacious  masters, 
Their  native  spirit  was  broken,  they  became  humbled  and  de- 
graded, arid  the  race  %vas  rapidly  wasting  away.     Thti 
pressions  and  .sufferings  at  length  <excked  the  aympathiei1  if 


78  SKETCH    OF    THE    HISTORY 

many  humane  persons,  particularly  arnong  the  clergy,  who  ev- 
erted themselves  with  much  zeal  and  perseverance  to  melio- 
rate the  condition  of  the  Indians.  These  efforts  at  length  pre- 
vailed, and  in  the  year  1542,  Charles  V.  abolished  the  reparti- 
mientas,  and  all  the  rights  which  the  Spanish  colonists  claim- 
ed in  the  natives  as  domestic  slaves,  and  restored  them  to  the 
privileges  of  freemen  and  subjects.  These  just  regulations  fil- 
led the  colonies  with  consternation,  and  in  Peru  they  were  re- 
sisted by  force.  But  the  rights  of  the  natives  were  more  ap- 
parent than  real  ;  for  their  condition  wab  only  changed  from 
that  of  slaves  of  individuals,  to  that  of  vassals  of  the  crown.  It 
was  claimed  that  as  members  of  the  state,  they  must  contri- 
bute something  towards  its  support  ;  and  accordingly  a  tax 
was  imposed  on  every  male  from  eighteen  to  fifty,  consisting 
of  personal  service,  and  the  extent  arid  time  of  performing  the 
same  were  accurately  defined.  This  capitation  tax,  or  tribute, 
has  varied  in  different  provinces,  and  at  different  periods  ;  but 
in  the  eighteenth  century  was  usually  four  shillings  sterling 
per  annum  ;  and,  previous  to  the  late  political  revolution,  it 
was  ten  francs.  They  paid,  besides,  certain  fees  to  the  cler- 
gy for  baptism,  certificates  of  marriage,  interments,  masses, 
&c.  Among  the  regulations  adopted  for  the  benefit  of  the 
Indians,  was  what  was  called  the  encomiendas,  by  which  they 
were  granted  to  certain  great  land-holders,  as  their  proprie- 
tors and  protectors,  not  as  slaves  according  to  the  repartirni- 
entas,  but  on  such  principles  as  recognised  certain  rights  in 
the  Indians.  This  measure,  like  most  others  in  America,  was 
so  abused,  that  though  intended  for  the  protection  of  the  na- 
tives, it  became  a  fertile  cause  of  increasing  their  miseries. 
After  the  adoption  of  this  system,  every  Indian  under  the  do- 
minion of  Spain,  was  either  the  immediate  vassal  of  the  crown, 
or  of  some  subject  who  was  the  owner  of  the  encomienda,  or 
the  district  in  which  he  resided. 

The  services  required  of  the  Indians  were  of  two  kinds, 
employment  in  agriculture  and  other  branches  of  necessary 
industry,  arid  labour  in  the  mines.  They  were  divided  into 
classes  called  mitas,  and  called  into  service  by  turns  at  regular 
periods,  and  served  a  definite  time.  The  employment  in  the 
mines,  extracting  oar  from  the  bowels  of  the  earth  at  a  vast 
depth,  and  conveying  it  to  the  surface,  and  the  successive 
processes  of  refining  it,  are  not  only  extremely  laborious,  but 
very  unhealthy,  and  have  wasted  thousands  of  this  degraded 
and  wretched  race.  The  condition  of  the  Indians  became 
worse  and  worse  until  the  eighteenth  century,  when  many  of 
the  original  proprietors  of  theencomiendas,  and  their  descend^ 


OF  SPANISH    AMERICA.  79 

ants,  being  extinct,  the  grants  not  being  renewed,  relieved 
them  from  this  species  of  bondage. 

Charles  ill  was  their  benefactor,  and  annulled  what  re- 
mained of  the  ecomiendas,  and  suppressed  the  corregidors 
who  supplied  them  with  various  articles  at  exorbitant  prices, 
and  thus  reduced  them  nearly  to  slavery,  by  making  them 
their  debtors.  But  the  establishment  of  intendancies,  during 
the  ministry  of  Count  Galvez,  in  the  eighteenth  century,  for 
the  superiiitendance  and  protection  of  the  Indians,  was  the 
most  efficacious  measure  adopted  for  meliorating  the  condi- 
tion of  the  natives ;  and  by  an  active  and  energetic  adminis- 
tration, the  most  happy  results  were  produced  to  this  much 
injured  race,  who,  after  being  robbed  of  their  country,  for 
three  centuries,  like  the  Israelites  in  Egypt,  had  been  compel- 
led to  groan  under  the  burdens  of  hard  task-masters.  They 
were  still  deprived  of  all  the  important  rights  of  citizens,  and 
considered  as  minors,  under  the  tutelage  of  their  superiors, 
and  could  make  no  contract  beyond  the  value  of  ten  pounds. 
They  were  prohibited  from  intermarrying  with  the  whites, 
from  engaging  in  any  commercial  transactions,  ana  no  other 
situations  or  employments  were  open  to  them  but  those  of 
common  labourers  or  artisans.  Those  who  lived  in  the  large 
towns,  were  governed  by  Spanish  laws  and  magistrates,  but 
the  greater  part  of  them  were  shut  up  in  villages  of  their  own, 
and  governed  by  petty  Indian  magistrates,  who  were  either 
descendants  of  the  ancient  caciques,  or  lords,  or  appointed 
by  the  Spanish  authorities  ;  and  in  either  case,  they  found 
it  for  their  interest  to  perpetuate  the  ignorance  and  barbarism 
of  their  countrymen  ;  or  were  too  stupid  and  ignorant  them- 
selves to  perceive  the  advantages  of  civilizing  and  improving 
them. 

In  considering  the  condition  and  wretchedness  of  the  Indi- 
ans in  Spanish  America,  we  have  not  noticed  all  the  consequen- 
ces or  evils  which  followed  the  subjugation  of  the  aboriginal 
inhabitants  of  the  country,  and  which  were  avoided  in  the 
English  colonies  in  the  new  world.  The  existence  of  various 
casts,  or  mixed  races,  which  now  constitute  so  large  a  portion 
of  the  whole  population  of  the  country,  is  a  consequence  of 
the  subjugation  of  the  natives.  The  whole  population  of  the 
Spanish  colonies  is  divided  into  classes  ;  the  natives  of  old 
Spain  settled  in  America,  were  denominated  Chapetones,  or 
gachupines  ;  they  claimed  the  first  rank,  and  engrossed  most 
of  the  places  of  power  and  profit,  merely  on  account  of  their 
birth  ;  the  descendants  of  European  Spaniards  in  the  colonies, 
were  called  Creoles,  and,  although  they  legally  enjoyed  the 
Same  civil  rights  as  the  natives  of  old  Spain,  they  were  treat- 


80  SKETCH    OF    THE    HISTORY 

ed  as  a  distinct  and  subordinate  class,  and  entirely  excluded 
from  all  situations  of  any  importance.  Of  the  mixtures,  the 
Mestizos  are  the  descendants  of  a  white  and  an  Indian;  the 
descendants  of  an  Indian  and  Negro,  are  called  Zembos  and 
these  casts  produce  other  mixtures,  of  different  shades  of  col- 
our and  degrees  of  blood,  too  various  to  be  divided  into  dis- 
tinct classes. 

Notwithstanding  the  avidity  for  gold  of  the  first  adventurers, 
arid  the  ardour  with  which  they  pursued  their  researches  for 
the  hidden  treasures,  their  exertions  were  attended  with  little 
success  for  a  great  number  of  years.  It  was  not  until  1545^ 
that  the  rich  mines  of  Potosi,  ill  Peru,  were  accidentally  dis- 
covered bv  an  Indian,  in  clambering  up  the  mountain;  and 
this  event  was  soon  followed  by  the  discovery  of  the  mines  of 
Zacatecas,  in  Mexico.  Numerous  mines  of  gold  and  silver 
were  afterwards  discovered  at.  different  times,  in  most  of  the 
provinces.  For  a  lon^  period  the  working  of  the  various 
mines,  formed  the  principal  employment  of  the  American 
Spaniards  ;  all  other  pursuits  being  subordinate,  if  not  con- 
tributary  to  this.  And  such  was  the  exuberant  profusion 
with  which  the  mountains  of  the  new  world  poured  forth  their 
treasures,  that  down  to  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
according  to  calculations  deemed  moderate,  a  quantity  of  the 
precious  metals  had  been  carried  to  Spain,  equal  to  four  mill- 
ions sterling,  annually,  from  the  iirst  discovery  of  the  country. 
This  product,  great  as  it  was,  is  small,  compared  with  the 
quantity  which  the  more  extensive  operutions  of  the  present 
century  have  afforded.  The  products  of  the  mines  have 
been  constantly  increasing  for  more  than  a  century,  and  in 
Mexico,  within  that  period,  have  increased  uiore  than  six  ibid. 
During  ten  years,  from  1690  to  1C99,  the  gold  and  silver  coin- 
ed at  the  Mexican  mint  W7as  of  the  value  of  nearly  forty-three 
millions  of  dollars  ;  and  the  amount  coined  for  ten  years, 
from  1790  to  1799,  one  century  after,  exceeded  two  hundred 
and  thirty-one  millions.  The  mines  wrere  not  worked  by  the 
crown,  but,  although  attended  with  immense  expense,  were 
carried  on  by  individual  enterprise.  To  encourage  adventur- 
ers in  mining,  the  person  discovering  a  mine  was  entitled  to 
the  property  in  it,  provided  he  would  work  it  within  a  given 
period.  The  discoverer  presented  his  claim  to  the  governor 
of  the  province,  and  if  allowed,  a  grant  of  land  was  made  to 
him  round  the  mine,  and  a  number  of  Indians  allotted  him, 
for  working  the  mine  ;  but  he  must  prosecute  the  business 
within  the  time  specified,  and  pay  the  customary  proportion  to 
the  crown. 

The  direct  pursuit  of  the  precious  metals,  is  the  most  fasci- 


OF    SPANISH    AMERICA.  81 

atinor  of  all  employments,  stimulated  by  avarice  ;  and  so  irre 
sistible  and  bewitching  is  its  influence,  that,  like  the  charm  of 
the  rattle-snake,  it  seemed  to  turn  the  heads  and  change  the 
natural  disposition  of  those  who  became  the  victims  of  its 
power.  Like  the  passion  for  deep  gambling,  it  took  such  en- 
tire possession  of  the  mind,  that  when  a  person  once  engaged 
in  this  seducing  pursuit,  visions  of  imaginary  wealth  were 
constantly  before  his  eyes  :  whether  sleeping  or  awake,  he 
dreams  of  mountains  of  gold  ;  and  having  once  entered  the 
enchanting  path,  lie  cannot  return,  but  is  led  along,  as  if  by 
an  ignis-fatuus,  to  the  realization  of  his  dreams,  or  to  ruin. 
The  prevalence  of  such  a  spirit  as  this,  produced  a  vortex  in 
the  public  mind,  which  swallowed  up  every  other  interest,  or 
pursuit,  diverted  indurtry  from  its  natural  channels,  and  occa- 
sioned the  neglect  of  agriculture  and  manufactures,  except  so 
far  as  they  were  dependent  on,  and  auxilary  to,  this  prevailing 
pursuit. 

But  notwithstanding  the  engrossing  influence  of  mining, 
other  interests,  entirely  disconnected  therewith,  were  not 
wholly  neglected,  but  afforded,  in  the  different  provinces,  vari- 
ous important  articles  of  exportation.  Cochineal,  a  valuable 
drug,  and  important  article  of  commerce,  composed  of  a  cu- 
rious insect,  was  attended  with  profit  in  New  Spain  ;  quinqui- 
na, or  Jesuits'  bark,  the  most  valuable  restorative  the  three 
kingdoms  of  nature  produce,  afforded  a  lucrative  branch  of 
commerce  in  Peru,  and  indigo  and  cocoa  were  produced  in 
large  quantities,  and  were  important  articles  of  exportation  in 
Guatamala.  In  Buenos  Ayrcs,  hides  formed  an  important 
staple,  and  afforded  a  profitable  branch  of  commerce.  Hor- 
ses and  neat  cattle,  introduced  from  Europe,  increased  with 
astonishing  rapidity,  and  ranging  over  the  vast  prairies,  lying 
between  the  La  Plata  and  the  Andes,  covered  at  all  times  with 
the  richest  verdure,  they  multiplied  to  an  extent  almost  incred- 
ible. They  are  often  seen  in  droves  of  thirty  or  forty  thou- 
sand, covering  the  boundless  plain  farther  than  the  eye  can 
reach. 

During  the  reign  of  Charles  V.  when  the  power  of  Spain 
was  at  its  height,  her  manufactures  and  commerce  were  ex- 
tensive and  flourishing  ;  and  both  received  a  great  and  favour- 
able impulse,  in  consequence  of  the  new  market  which  was 
opened  in  America.  Her  manufactures  were  sufficient  to 
supply  the  growing  demand  of  her  colonies,  in  addition^to  sat- 
isfying that  at  home.  Her  commerce  was  equally  flourishing  ; 
at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  Spain  had  more  than 
one  thousand  merchant  vessels,  a  number  far  exceeding  that 
possessed  by  anv  nation  in  Eurone.  From  the  destructive 


82  SKETCH    OF    THE    HISTORY 

foreign  wars  of  Philip  II.  and  the  stupid  bigotry  of  his  succes- 
sor, Philip  III.,  who  expelled  the  Moors  from  his  kingdom, 
amounting  to  a  million  of  the  most  industrious  of  his  subjects, 
Spain  became  drained  of  its  inhabitants,  so  that  early  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  her  manufactures  and  commerce  began 
to  decay  ;  men  could  not  be  recruited  to  keep  up  her  fleets 
and  armies ;  her  extensive  foreign  commerce  was  lost,  and 
even  agriculture  began  to  be  neglected.  The  great  emigra- 
tion to  the  colonies,  still  farther  drained  off  the  population, 
and  the  immense  wealth  which  the  colonies  poured  into  the 
parent  state,  intoxicated  the  inhabitants,  as  well  as  the  sove- 
reign, and  led  them  to  desert  the  paths  of  industry  to  which 
they  had  been  accustomed.  Thus,  at  a  time  when  the  popu- 
lation and  wants  of  tLe  colonies  were  daily  augmenting,  the 
means  of  Spain  to  supply  them  had  decreased  in  a  much  great- 
er ratio.  She  was  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  her  neighbours, 
and  to  supply  her  colonies  with  the  manufactures  of  Holland, 
England,  France  and  Italy.  She  was  stiil,  however,  as  firmly 
bent  on  maintaining  the  entire  monopoly  of  the  colonial  trade, 
although  it  was  apparent  that  foreigners  now  derived  the  prin- 
cipal benefit  from  it.  Nineteen-twentieths  of  the  commodities 
exported  to  her  colonies,  were  foreign  fabrics,  which  were 
paid  for  by  the  products  of  the  mines,  received  in  return,  so 
that  the  precious  metals  no  sooner  entered  Spain,  than  they 
passed  away  into  the  hands  of  foreigners,  and  the  country  was 
left  without  sufficient  for  a  circulating  medium. 

Although  wholly  unable  to  supply  the  wants  of  her  colonies, 
Spain  did  not  relax  in  the  smallest  degree  the  rigour  of  her  co^ 
lonial  system ;  the  principal  of  which,  was,  that  the  whole 
commerce  with  the  colonies  should  be  in  the  hands,  and  un- 
der the  direction  of  the  crown,  a  monopoly  similar  to  that  of 
an  exclusive  company.  The  regulation  of  this  commerce  was 
entrusted  to  the  Casa  de  Contratacion,  or  board  of  trade  es- 
tablished at  Seville.  This  board  granted  a  licence  to  any  ves- 
sel bound  to  America,  and  inspected  its  cargo.  From  these 
regulations,  the  entire  commerce  with  the  colonies  centered 
in  Seville,  and  continued  there  until  1720.  It  was  carried  on 
in  a  uniform  manner  for  more  than  two  centuries.  The  system 
was,  that  a  fleet  with  a  strong  convoy,  sailed  annually  to  Amer- 
ica ;  this  consisted  of  two  squadrons  or  divisions,  one  called 
the  Galleons,  the  other  the  Flota.  They  sailed  from  Seville 
until  the  year  1720,  and  after  that  principally  from  Cadiz,  un- 
til 1778,  when  fourteen  other  ports  were  opened  to  the  trade 
with  the  colonies.  The  galleons  destined  to  Terra  Firma,  Pe- 
ru and  Chile,  first  touched  at  Carthagena,  where  not  only  that 
province,  but  also  those  of  Caraccas,  Santa  Martha,  and  oth- 


OF    SPANISH    AMERICA.  83 

jers  in  New  Granada,  were  supplied.     From  Carthagena  the 
fleet  proceeded  to  Porto  Cabello,  which  was  the  mart  of  all 
the  rich  commerce  of  Peru  and  Chile.     Previous  to  the  time 
the  galleons  were  expected,  the  products  of  the  mines,  and 
suclTarticles  of  produce  as  Peru  and  Chile  afforded  for  expor- 
tation, were  annually  conveyed  by  sea  to  Panama,   and  from 
thence  across  the  isthmus,  to  Porto  Cabello,  part  of  the  way 
on  mules,  and  part  down  the  river  Chagres.     After  the  arrival 
of  the  fleet  of  galleons,  and  the  merchants  from  Peru  and  the 
other  provinces,  Porto  Cabello,  a  paltry  and  unwholesome  vil- 
lage, consisting  of  negro  huts  and  a  small  garrison,  immedi- 
ately assumed  a  new  appearance  ;  its  store-houses  were  tilled 
with  merchandise,  and  its  streets  crowded  with  opulent  mer- 
chants,   drawn  from  distant  provinces.     A  fair  was   opened 
that  continued  for  forty  days,   during  which  the  most  exten- 
sive commercial  transactions  took  place,  and  the  rich  cargoes 
of  the  galleons  were  all  marketed,  and  the  specie  and  staples 
of  the  colonies,  received  in  payment  and  carried  back  to  fepain. 
The  flota,  or  other  squadron,  directed  its  course  to  Vera  Cruz, 
and  supplied  New  Spain  and  all  the  provinces  that  belonged 
to  that  Viceroyalty.     The  treasures  of  the  mines  and  products 
of  the  country,  were  first  deposited  at,  Puebla,  and  on  the  ar- 
rival of  the  flota,  were  carried  to  Vera  Cruz,  where  the  ex- 
change was  conducted  in  the  same  manner  as  at  Porto  Cabello. 
Both  squadrons  having  taken  in  their  return  cargoes,  rendez- 
vous at  Havanna,  and  sail  from  thence  to  Europe  in  company. 
Such  was  the  stinted,  fettered,  and  restricted  commerce 
which  subsisted  between  Spain  and  her  colonies,   for  more 
than  two  centuries  and  a  half ;    and  such  were  the  swadling 
clothes  which  bound  the  youthful  and  vigorous  limbs  of  the 
colonies,  calculated  to  retard  their  growth  and  keep  them  al- 
ways in  a  state  of  dependence  and  minority.     They  were  not 
permitted  to  act  for  themselves  in  the  most  common  arid  ne- 
cessary concerns;  but  must  wear  such  apparel,  and  consume 
such  meats  and  drinks  as  parental  authority  see  fit  to  allow 
them.     This  restricted  and  contemptible  commercial  system, 
was  scarcely  less  injurious  to  Spain  than  to  her  colonies.    The 
naval  superiority  of  the  English  and  Dutch,  enabled  them  to 
cut  off  all  intercourse  between  Spain  and  her  colonies,  which 
exposed  the  colonies  to  suffer  for  the  want  of  the  necessaries 
of  life,  and  introduced  an  extensive  smuggling  trade.     It  also 
compelled  the  Spanish  monarch  so  far  to  relax  the  rigour  of 
his  system  as  to  permit  France,  then  his  ally,  to  open  a  trade 
with  Peru  ;  the  French  carried  such  quantities  of  goods  there, 
tjiat  they  found  their  way  into  all  the  Spanish  provinces.    This 


84  SKETCH    OF    THE    HISTORY 

trade  being  carried  on  directly,  threatened  the  destruction  of 
the  trade  with  Spain,  and  it  was  therefore  prohibited. 

By  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  Great-Britain  obtained  a  conces- 
sion, which  secured  to  her  a  foot-hold  for  commercial  purposes 
in  the  Spanish  colonies  in  America.  Philip  V.  transferred  to 
Britain,  with  the  consent  of  France,  the  privilege  or  contract, 
which  the  latter  had  enjoyed,  of  supplying  the  Spanish  colonies 
with  negroes,  and  the  more  dangerous  right  of  sending,  annu- 
ally, one  ship  of  five  hundred  tons,  to  the  fair  at  Porto  Cabello. 
This  led  to  the  establishment  of  British  factories  at  Carthage- 
na,  Panama,  Vera  Cruz,  Buenos  Ayres,  and  other  places. 
The  residence  of  the  agents  and  merchants  of  a  rival  power,  in 
the  most  important  towns,  drew  aside  the  veil  which  had  hith- 
erto concealed  from  the  world  the  interior  condition  of  the 
Spanish  colonies,  and  excited  a  spirit  of  commercial  cupidity, 
which  led  to  an  extensive  contraband  trade.  This,  at  first, 
was  carried  on  principally  from  Jamaica  and  other  British 
colonies.  As  might  have  been  foreseen,  the  privilege  granted 
to  the  British  was  at  once  abused  and  greatly  extended.  In- 
stead of  a  ship  of  five,  one  of  nine  hundred  tons  was  sent  to 
Porto  Cabello  ;  and  this  was  accompanied  with  several  small- 
er vessels,  which  moored  in  some  neighbouring  creek,  and 
clandestinely  conveyed  their  cargoes  to  the  principal  ship.  The 
inspectors  of  the  fair,  blinded  by  presents,  remained  ignorant 
of  these  frauds.  From  the  intrinsic  defects  of  the  Spanish  co- 
lonial system,  arid  the  weakness  of  granting  the  privileges  spo- 
ken of,  to  the  most  enterprising  commercial  nation  in  the 
world,  the  commerce  carried  on  in  the  galleons,  so  long  the 
pride  of  Spain,  and  even  the  envy  of  other  nations,  was  almost 
annihilated,  before  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Alarmed  at  the  extent  and  pernicious  consequences  of  the 
contraband  trade,  Spain  stationed  ships  of  war  along  the  coast 
most  exposed  to  this  illicit  traffic,  to  suppress  it.  These  were 
called  Guarda  Costas  ;  they  checked  the  smuggling  trade  to  a 
considerable  degree,  which  led  to  complaints,  on  the  part  of 
Great-Britain,  and  finally  to  war,  on  the  claim  of  some  outra- 
ges committed  by  the  Guarda  Costae.  Spain,  however,  ob- 
tained a  release  from  the  Assiento,  or  privilege  granted  to 
England,  and  was  once  more  at  liberty  to  manage  her  com- 
merce with  her  colonies  in  her  own  way,  without  restraint. 
The  contraband  trade,  however,  continued,  the  Dutch  and 
French  engaged  iu  it,  as  well  as  the  English  ;  and  to  such  an 
extent  was  it  carried,  that  sometimes,  when  the  galleons  ar- 
rived, the  markets  were  glutted,  and  their  cargoes  could 
scarcely  be  disposed  of.  The  galleons  were  prevented  from 
sailing  by  wars,  and  often  retarded  by  various  accidents,  and 


OF    SPANISH    AMERICA.  85 

this  occasioned  a  new  regulation,  by  which  commerce  with 
the  colonies  was  carried  on  by  register  ships,  fitted  out  during 
the  intervals  of  the  sailing  of  the  fleets.  The  advantages  of 
this  commerce  were  so  apparent,  that  in  the  year  1748  the 
galleons  were  no  longer  employed,  and  the  trade  with  Peru 
and  Chile  was  prosecuted  in  a  direct  route,  round  Cape. Horn, 
in  single  ships.  Still  the  register  ships  were  all  obliged  to  take 
their  departure  from  Cadiz,  and  to  return  to  that  port. 

The  Dutch,  from  the  vicinity  of  their  settlement  at  Curra- 
coa,  to  Caraccas,  having  engrossed  a  considerable  part  of  the 
cocoa  trade  of  that  province,  Spain,  in  1728,  granted  to  a 
company  of  merchants  an  exclusive  monopoly  of  the  trade  with 
Caraccas  and  Cumana  ;  and  both  the  parent  state  and  the  co- 
lonies derived  great  benefit  from  the  commercial  enterprise  of 
this  company. 

From  the  want  of  more  frequent  intercourse  between  Spain 
and  her  colonies,  it  often  happened  that  important  events, 
which  occurred  in  the  latter,  were  known  for  some  time,  by 
foreign  nations,  before  intelligence  of  them  had  reached 
{Spain.  To  remedy  this  evil,  in  1764,  a  system  of  packets 
was  established,  to  be  despatched  on  the  first  day  of  every 
month,  to  Havanna  ;  from  whence  letters  were  sent  to  Vera 
Cruz,  Porto  Cabello,  and  so  transmitted  throughout  the  Span- 
ish settlements.  The  packet-boats  also  sailed,  once  a  month, 
to  Buenos  Ayres,  to  accommodate  the  settlements  east  of  the 
Andes.  Objects  of  commerce  connected  themselves  with  this 
arrangement ;  the  packets  were  vessels  of  considerable  bur- 
den, and  carried  out  goods  and  brought  back  a  return  cargo 
in  the  productions  of  the  colonies. 

The  way  being  in  some  degree  prepared,  the  following  year, 
1765,  Charles  III.  abrogated  the  restrictions  on  the  trade  to 
Cuba,  and  other  islands  to  the  windward,  leaving  it  open  to 
all  his  subjects,  with  no  other  restriction  but  that  of  their  sail- 
ing to  particular  ports  in  each  island.  The  beneficial  effects, 
both  to  old  Spain  and  the  colonies,  resulting  from  a  relaxation 
of  the  ancient  laws,  being  sensibly  felt,  one  relaxation  proved 
ihe  necessity  of  another,  and  in  1778,  the  monopoly  was  still 
farther  done  away  ;  and  the  colonial  trade,  which  had  been 
confined  to  Cadiz  and  Seville,  for  two  and  a  half  centuries, 
was  permitten  to  be  carried  on  in  fourteen  other  Spanish  sea- 
ports, which  produced  a  most  important  and  favourable  change, 
both  to  the  colonies  and  the  revenue  of  Spain. 

The  restrictions  upon  the  internal  intercourse  and  com- 
merce of  the  Spanish  colonies,  were,  if  possible,  more  griev- 
ous and  pernicious  in  their  consequences,  than  those  on  the 
inter  course  with  Spain.  From  their  first  settlement,  all  in- 
I.  8 


86  SKETCH    OP  THE  HISTORY 

tercourse,  was  prohibited,  under  the  severest  penalties,  fc^ 
tween  the  different  provinces  in  the  South  Sea.  Peru,  Chile* 
New  Spain,  New  Granada,  and  Guatamala,  were  cruelly  in- 
hibited from  all  commerce  and  from  all  intercourse,  whatsoev- 
er, with  each  other,  which  would  so  obviously  have  promo- 
ted their  mutual  comfort,  prosperity  and  advancement.  At 
length,  in  1774,  Charles  III.  removed  this  severe  and  in- 
famous restriction,  and  opened  a  free  trade  between  these 
provinces. 

In  noticing  the  commerce  of  the  Spanish  colonies,  that 
from  Manilla  requires  our  attention.  Philip  II.  established 
a  colony  on  the  Philippine  Islands.  The  armament  was  fitted 
out  from  New  Spain,  and  the  station,  selected  for  a  town,  was 
called  Manilla,  on  the  Island  of  Luconia.  This  settlement 
soon  engaged  in  active  commercial  intercourse  with  China, 
which  occasioned  a  number  of  the  Chinese  to  emigrate  to  the 
colony,  for  the  purposes  of  commerce,  and  the  prospects  of 
gain.  They  not  only  supplied  the  colony  with  the  manufac- 
tures of  the  East,  but  introduced  such  quantities  as  enabled 
it  to  open  a  trade  with  America.  At  first,  this  trade,  which 
was  attended  by  the  longest  course  of  navigation  of  any  in  the 
world,  was  confined  to  Callao,  on  the  Coast  of  Peru,  but  sub- 
sequently it  was  transferred  to  Acapulco  on  the  western  coast 
of  New  Spain.  It  finally  acquired  regularity  and  system,  and 
became  an  important  branch  of  the  commerce  of  the  Spanish 
colonies.  It  supplied  them  with  the  merchandise  of  China 
and  the  East  Indies,  in  exchange  for  their  precious  metals, 
and  the  produce  of  America*  A  single  galleon,  of  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  hundred  tons,  sailed  from  Manilla  about  the 
first  of  July,  with  the  south-west  monsoon,  and  generally  ar- 
rived at  Acapulco  in  three  months,  with  a  cargo  that  often  a- 
mounted  to  two  millions  of  dollars,  although  by  law  it  was 
limited  to  half  a  million.  In  February  or  March  she  returned, 
and  taking  advantage  of  the  trade  winds,  accomplished  the 
voyage  in  fifty  or  sixty  days.  And  at  a  later  period  a  galleon 
has  also  been  depatched  from  Manilla  to  Lima,  a  longer  and 
more  difficult  voyage,  as  it  must  first  discover  the  Coast  of 
Mexico,  and  then  steer  southward  to  Peru,  a  navigation  ex- 
tremely difficult  and  tedious.  What  is  most  remarkable,  this 
commerce  was  suffered  to  be  carried  on,  in  direct  contraven- 
tion of  the  fundamental  principle  of  the  colonial  system 
Spain,  which  held  the  colonies  entirely  dependent  on  the 
mother  country.  It  seems  to  have  grown  up  gradually, 
until  it  became  so  important,  and  so  great  a  part  of  the  pop 
ulation  became  interested  in  it,  that  it  could  not  be  sup- 
pressed. 


OF  SPANISH   AMERICA.  87 

Spain  received  a  considerable  revenue  from  her  colonies, 
notwithstanding  the  extensive  contraband  trade  which,  at  some 
periods,  even  in  time  of  peace,  amounted  to  one-third  of  the 
whole  commerce  of  the  colonies,  and  other  frauds  practised 
on  the  revenue.  The  revenue  consisted  of  three  branches  ; 
the  first,  that  which  was  paid  to  the  king,  as  lord-paramount, 
or  sovereign  of  the  country  ;  the  second,  what  accrued  to 
him  as  head  of  the  church  ;  and  the  third,  imposts,  or  duties 
on  commerce.  The  first  comprised  the  customary,  or  share, 
received  by  the  crown,  of  the  product  of  the  mines,  called  the 
right  of  seigniory,  and  the  tribute  paid  by  the  Indians,  called 
the  duty  of  vassalage.  As  head  of  the  church,  and  ad- 
ministrator of  its  funds,  the  king  received  various  spiritual 
revenues, — the  first  fruits,  spoils,  and  the  receipts  from  the 
sale  of  the  Bull  of  Cruzado.  This  bull  was  promulged  by 
the  Pope  every  second  year,  containing  an  absolution  from 
past  offences  and  granting  certain  immunities,  such  as  eating 
prohibited  food,  during  lent,  and  the  like.  The  monks,  em- 
ployed in  distributing  these  bulls,  extolled  their  virtues  with 
all  that  zeal  and  eloquence  which  interest  usually  inspires,  and 
which  was  always  found  wonderfully  efficacious.  The  igno- 
rant were  led  to  regard  it  as  essential  to  their  salvation  at  the 
rate  set  on  it  by  government,  and  by  such  fraudulent  means  a 
universal  tax  was  levied  on  the  credulity  and  bigotry  of  a 
whole  nation.  The  morals  of  the  people  were  thus  bartered 
away  by  the  government,  which  ought  to  have  been  their 
guardian  and  protector,  for  a  mess  of  pottage,  a  paltry  tax, 
The  duties  on  merchandise  were  numerous  and  oppressive, 
and  clogged  and  embarrassed  every  commercial  transaction, 
from  the  wholesale  merchant  to  the  petty  retail  vender.  Great, 
discrimination  was  made  between  the  duties  on  the  manufac- 
tures of  Spain,  and  those  on  the  productions  of  foreign  coun- 
tries. In  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  reve- 
nue raised  by  Spain  in  America,  was  estimated  at  a  million 
and  a  half  sterling.  This,  however,  was  only  the  direct  rev- 
enue, raised  in  the  colonies,  and  did  not  include  the  duties 
levied  in  Old  Spain,  on  all  the  exports  to  her  colonies,  and 
some  other  branches  of  revenue. 

If  the  revenue  was  great,  the  expenses  of  the  colonial  gov- 
ernment were  equally  so,  and  were  wholly  defrayed  by  the 
crown.  The  Spanish  colonial  system  was  not  confined  to  civil 
government,  but  embraced  commerce,  religion,  finance,  and  a 
military  establishment ;  all  of  which  were  under  the  authority 
and  management  of  the  crown.  It  was  also  complex,  in  an 
extreme  degree,  in  each  department ;  consequently  was  en- 
cumbered with  such  a  number  and  variety  of  offices,  tribunals, 


88  SKETCH    OP   THE   HISTORY 

and  boards,  as  not  only  occasioned  an  enormous  expense,  but 
rendered  it  unwiedly,  tardy  in  its  movements,  and  almost  un- 
manageable. Its  weight  was  also  increased  by  the  external 
parade  and  pomp  which  it  maintained.  Every  thing  was  on  a 
large  scale  ;  the  expenses  of  living  were  great,  all  salaries 
were  high,  and  most  of  the  officers  of  the  government  received, 
by  perquisites  and  in  the  various  ways  which  human  ingenuity 
could  devise,  several  times  as  much  as  their  salaries.  The 
viceroys  maintained  horse  and  foot  guards,  a  train  of  house- 
hold attendants,  and  all  the  pomp  and  dignity  of  a  regal  es- 
tablishment. They  enjoyed  a  salary  of  thirty  thousand  dol- 
lars, in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  ;  but  this  was 
a  small  part  of  their  income ;  by  monopolizing  certain  branch- 
es of  commerce,  the  disposal  of  all  the  lucrative  offices,  by 
presents,  and  by  innnmerable  frauds  and  abuses  of  power, 
they  usually,  after  continuing  in  office  a  few  years,  returned 
to  Spain  with  a  princely  fortune.  It  is  asserJted  that  a  viceroy, 
at  one  festival,  the  anniversary  of  his  birth-day,  received  fiftj 
thousand  dollars  in  presents, 


OF    SPANISH    AMERICA-.  89 


CHAPTER  V. 

Idnunistration  of  Don  Joseph  Galvez. — Buenos  Ayres — fourth 
vice-royalty  created — establishment  of  Intendancies — civil  di- 
visions oj  the  country — Gen.  Beresford  and  Sir  Home  Popham 
— attack  on  Buenos  Jlyres — view  of  the  government — its  dif- 
ferent offices — its  corruption  and  oppression — conspiracy  of 
Leon— frauds  practised  upon  the  Indians — Tupac  Jlmru 
heads  an  insurrection — is  defeated. — Civil  commotion  in 

New-Granada — -first  attempts  to  revolutionize  the  province. 

Miranda's  expedition — loyalty  of  the  Spanish  Creoles. 

THE  more  enlarged  views  of  policy,  which  led  to  the  relax- 
ation of  the  ancient  laws,  and  the  adoption  of  more  equitable 
and  just  commercial  regulations,  called  attention  to  the  inter- 
nal condition  of  the  Spanish  colonies,  and  occasioned  various 
salutary  reformations  and  improvements.  The  colonial  system, 
founded  on  false  and  inequitable  principles,  defective  and  op- 
pressive in  itself,  was  rendered  more  insupportable  from  the 
abuses  and  corruption  which  every  where  had  crept  into  the 
administration.  Not  only  a  correction  of  abuses,  but  a  refor- 
mation of  the  system,  was  successfully  attempted  in  the  latter 
part  of  the-  eighteenth  century,  during  the  enlightened  admin* 
istration  of  Don  Joseph  Galvez.  Having  spent  seven  years 
in  America,  as  Inspector-general  of  New  Spain,  and  visited 
most  of  the  remote  provinces,  he  was  elevated,  on  his  return 
to  Spain,  to  the  head  of  the  department  for  Indian,  or  more  pro- 
perly, American  affairs.  He  commenced  his  administration, 
which  forms  a  memorable  epoch  in  the  history  of  Spanish 
America,  by  a  general  reformation  of  the  whole  system.  The 
increase  of  population  and  wealth  in  the  colonies,  had  so 
multiplied  the  business  of  the  Courts  of /Audience,  that  the 
number  of  judges  were  wholly  inadequate  to  a  faithful  dis- 
charge of  the  duties  of  the  office.  He  increased  the  number 
I  of  judges,  raised  their  salaries,  and  enlarged  their  powers  of 
appointment. 

From  the  extension  of  the  settlements,  great  inconvenience 
was  experienced,  notwithstanding  the   establishment  of  the 


90  SKETCH    OF    THE   HISTORY 

third  viceroyalty  of  New  Granada,  in  consequence  of  the  re- 
moteness of  many  of  the  provinces  from  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment ;  and  the  farther  the  administration  was  removed  from 
the  seat  of  authority,  the  greater  were  the  abuses  which  at- 
fcended  it.  There  were  provinces  subject  to  the  government 
of  New  Spain,  more  than  two  thousand  miles  from  Mexico, 
and  some  appertaining  to  the  Viceroyalty  of  Peru,  were  still 
farther  from  Lima.  To  remedy  this  evil,  a  fourth  viceroyalty 
was  created,  in  the  year  1776,  comprising  the  provinces  of  Rio 
de  la  Plata,  Buenos  Ayres,  Paraguay,  Tucuman,  Potosi,  St 
Cruz  de  la  Sierra,  Charcas,  and  the  towns  of  Mendoza  and  St. 
Juan.  The  seat  of  government  was  established  at  Buenos 
\yres,  and  Don  Pedro  Zevallos  raised  to  his  new  dignity,  who 
was  well  acquainted  with  the  countries  over  which  he  had  to 
preside,  having  long  resided  in  them,  in  a  subordinate  station. 
This  division,  together  with  what  was  taken  off  at  the  erection 
of  the  Viceroyalty  of  New  Granada,  reduced  the  territory  of 
the  Viceroyalty  of  Peru  to  one-third  its  original  extent.  The 
remote  provinces  of  Sonora,  Cinaloa,  California,  and  New 
Navarre,  which  belonged  to  the  jurisdiction  of  New  Spain, 
were  likewise  formed  into  a  separate  government,  which  was 
conferred  on  the  Chevalier  de  Croix,  who,  although  not  pos- 
sessed of  the  title  and  dignity  of  viceroy,  was  wholly  indepen- 
dent of  the  Viceroyalty  of  New  Spain.  Several  of  these  pro- 
vinces contained  some  of  the  richest  mines  of  gold  in  Ameri- 
ca, recently  discovered,  and  this  was  among  the  reasons  that 
urged  the  erection  of  a  new  government,  which,  from  its  vi- 
cinity, might  afford  the  protection  and  facilities  that  the  mining 
operations  required.  Another,  and  perhaps  the  most  patriot- 
ic measure  of  the  Count  de  Galvez,  was  the  establishment  of 
Intendancies,  for  the  superintendance  and  protection  of  the 
Indians.  This  measure  had  a  happy  effect  on  the  natives  ;  un- 
der the  active  superintendence  of  the  intendants,  whose  duty 
it  was  to  watch  over  their  rights,  as  guardians  and  protectors, 
this  miserable  race  enjoyed  securities  and  advantages  of  which 
they  were  deprived  under  the  tyranny  of  the  subaltern  Span- 
i.sh  and  Indian  magistrates,  to  whom  they  had  been  subjected. 
At  a  subsequent  period,  some  alterations  took  place  in  the 
political  divisions  of  Spanish  America,  so  that  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  political  revolution,  which  has  restored  all 
the  Spanish  dominions,  on  the  American  Continent,  to  inde- 
pendence and  liberty,  its  civil  divisions  consisted  of  the  four 
Viceroyalties  of  New  Spain,  Peru,  Buenos  Ayres,  and  Nev 
Granada,  and  the  territories  called  Captain-generalcies  of 
Chile,  Venezuela,  and  Guatamala.  These  seven  distinct  gov- 
ernments were  independent  of  each  other  ;  a  -viceroy  presi- 


OP    SPANISH    AMERICA.  91 

ded  over  the  four  first,  and  an  officer,  called  a  captain-general, 
over  the  three  last,  all  of  which  were  appointed  by  the  king ; 
were  independent  of  each  other,  and  directly  dependent  or\ 
the  crown.  These  governments  were  subdivided  into  provin- 
ces, over  which  presided  a  governor,  or  corregidore,  and  also 
into  intendancies,  which  formed  the  jurisdiction  of  an  officer 
called  an  intendant.  This  latter  division  was  principally  for 
that  part  of  government  which  related  to  the  Indians.  The 
governors  and  intendants  were  appointed  by  the  king,  but  ac- 
countable to  the  viceroy,  or  captain-general,  to  whose  jurisdic- 
tion the  province  belonged.  The  provinces  were  again  divi- 
ded into  departments,  over  which  presided  a  delegate  of  the 
governor  or  officer,  at  the  head  of  the  government  of  the 
province,  and  likewise  subordinate  magistrates,  called  alcades, 
appointed  by  the  municipalities,  denominated,  cabildos.  The 
viceroys  and  captain-generals  possessed  both  civil  and  military 
power,  and  generally  the  governors  possessed  the  same  ;  but 
in  some  instances  they  enjoyed  only  civil  authority,  in  which 
cases  there  was  a  military  chief,  or  officer  in  the  province, 
called  commandant  e,  who  held  the  military  command.  The 
supreme  judicial  power  was  vested  in  the  court  of  Audience, 
of  which  there  was  one  or  more  in  each  of  the  viceroyaities 
and  captain-generalcies  ;  the  separate  judges  of  this  tribunal 
were  called  oidores,  and  their  number  varied  according  to  the 
population  and  business  of  their  jurisdictions.  A  subordinate 
judicial  authority  was  vested  in  the  governors,  corregidores, 
and  their  delegates  ;  and  the  alcades  also  possessed  a  limited 
jurisdiction,  but  could  not  act,  unless  they  were  law-profes- 
sors, without  the  advice  0f  an  assesor,  or  lawyer.  The  decis- 
ions of  all  these  inferior  tribunals  might  be  reviewed  by  the 
Royal  Audience,  whose  decrees  vvere  final,  except,  in  some 
important  cases  an  appeal  was  allowed  to  the  council  of  the 
Indies. 

There  was  also  in  some  of  the  sea  ports,  tribunals  called 
consulados,  , having  cognizance  of  commercial  affairs  only, 
from  whose  decisions  an  appeal  might  be  made  to  the  viceroy. 
In  addition  to  these  authorities,  there  were  spiritual  tribunals, 
with  jurisdiction  over  all  ecclesiastical  affairs.  At  the  head 
of  these  was  the  holy  inquisition,  whose  jurisdiction  was  unde- 
fined, and  its  proceedings  secret,  tyrannical  and  cruel.  Itspun- 
ishments  were  inflicted  by  fine,  imprisonment,  torture,  the  gal- 
lows and  the  stake.  In  each  diocess  there  was  a  spiritual  court 
composed  of  the  bishop,  the  fiscal,  proctor  or  lawyer  and  the 
provisor.  The  ecclesiastical  courts  as  well  as  all  others,  were 
subject  to  the  control  of  the  \iceroy,  and  consequently  were 


92  SKETCH    OP  THE  HISTORY 

used  to  advance  the  ambitious  views  of  the  state  as  well  as  the 
church. 

There  was  nothing  like  popular  influence  in  either  branch 
of  the  government ;  no  mode  in  which  the  voice  of  the  people 
could  be  expressed,  nor  was  there  a  tribunal  or  officer  who  was 
amenable  to,  or  whose  authority  emanated  directly  from  the 
people.  There  were  no  meetings  of  the  inhabitants,  except 
at  church  and  for  public  worship  on  religious  festivals,  and 
the  press  could  scarcely  be  said  to  exert  any  influence,  so  far 
as  it  did  however,  it  was  only  an  instrument  of  tyranny  and  op- 
pression. Even  the  cabildos  or  corporations  which  regulated 
the  internal  police  of  cities  and  towns,  consisting  of  from  six 
to  twelve  members  according  to  their  population  or  business., 
were  entirely  independent  of  popular  influence.  These  offi- 
cers were  called  regidores,  the  governor  of  the  province  being 
ex-officio  president  of  the  cabildo  and  controlled  all  its  acts. 
The  office  of  Tegidore  was  held  during  life,  having  a  fixed 
price,  which  in  Buenos  Ayres  and  Chile,  was  about  .five  hun- 
dred dollars,  and  was  purchased  like  any  other  commodity  in 
market.  The  executive  officers  of  the  cabildos,  called  alqua- 
zils,  answering  to  sheriffs  and  constables  in  the  United  States, 
were  sold  at  given  prices,  the  same  being  the  case  in  a  great 
measure  with  the  alcades,  who  were  a  kind  of  petty  magis- 
trates or  justices  of  the  peace.  The  administration  was  cor- 
rupt in  all  departments,  beyond  any  example  in  modern  times. 
The  viceroys,  captain-generals,  intendants,  members  of  the 
court  of  Audience,  arch-bishops  and  bishops  who  were  ap- 
pointed by  the  king,  almost  without  exception  were  Span- 
iards ;  and  most  of  the  civil  and  military  appointments  were 
conferred  on  natives  of  old  Spain.  Down  to  the  year  1810, 
one  hundred  and  sixty  viceroys,  and  five  hundred  eighty- 
eight  captain-generals,  governors  and  presidents  of  the  royal 
Audience,  had  been  appointed  in  America,  of  whom  only  eigh- 
teen were  natives  of  the  country,  these  obtaining  their  ap- 
pointments, in  consequence,  of  having  received  their  educa- 
tion in  Spain. — Thus  for  ages,  was  Spanish  America  governed 
by  swarms  of  foreign  officers,  who  had  no  other  interest  than 
to  gratify  their  employers,  and  enrich  themselves. 

The  influence  of  the  political  revolution  in  the  British  col- 
onies, and  the  effects  of  commercial  freedom,  which  Spanish 
America  enjoyed  after  the  regulations  of  1778,  gave  ri^e  to 
the  first  symptoms  of  a  spirit  of  reformation  and  political  im- 
provement, which  appeared  in  the  Spanish  colonies.  Down 
to  this  period,  and  in  general,  until  the  breaking  out  of  the 
revolution  in  the  parent  country,  and  the  overthrow  of  the 
monarchy  by  Buonaparte  ;  the  Spanish  Creoles  in  America, 


OF    SPANISH    AMERICA,  93 

notwithstanding  the  political  oppression  which  they  suffered, 
and  their  personal  degradation  as  a  class,  were  distinguished 
for  their  loyalty  and  attachment  to  their  king  and  country. 
About  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  a  conspiracy  was 
formed  in  Caraccas,  headed  by  a  man  named  Leon,  the  ob- 
ject of  which,  however,  was  not  so  much  political,  as  commer- 
cial, it  being  the  design  of  the  conspirators  to  break  up  the 
company  of  Guipuscoa,  sometimes  called  the  company  of  Ca- 
faccas,  who  had  long  enjoyed  a  monopoly  of  all  the  trade  of 
that  and  several  other  provinces.  The  plot  did  not  succeed, 
<and  Leon  was  condemned  to  death,  his  house  razed  to  the 
ground,  and  a  column  placed  on  the  spot,  as  a  memorial  of  the 
horror  of  his  offence,  and  the  fate  that  awaited  all  traitors.  In 
1780,  an  alarming  revolution  broke  out  in  Peru,  among  the  na- 
tives, seconded  by  some  of  the  creole  inhabitants.  Previous 
to  the  reformations  and  correction  of  abuses  which  took  place 
during  the  administration  of  Count  de  Galvez,  the  corregido- 
les  practised  such  intolerable  extortions  and  frauds  on  the  In- 
dians, compelling  them  to  receive  their  necessary  supplies  on 
their  own  terms,  as  finally  drove  them  into  measures  of  opea 
resistance.  Tupac  Amru,  a  native  Peruvian,  of  the  royal  Inca 
blood,  became  the  leader  of  the  malecontents  ;  and  several 
individuals  of  influence  joining  him,  the  flame  of  resistance 
was  spread  for  three  hundred  leagues  into  the  interior  of  the 
country  ;  and  so  numerous  and  formidable  did  the  party  be- 
come, that  Tupac  Amru  was  proclaimed  Inca  of  Peru.  The 
Spanish  authorities  adopted  energetic  and  vindictive  measures 
to  suppress  the  insurgents  ;  the  contest  lasted  three  years, 
and  exhibited  many  bloody  scenes.  The  malecontents  were 
often  successful  ;  but  Tupac  Amru  did  not  conduct  in  his  new 
dignity  so  as  to  maintain  the  attachment  of  his  adherents  ;  their 
zeal  consequently  began  to  abate,  and  their  efforts  to  relax  ; 
and  being  attacked  by  the  troops  of  Buenos  Ayres,  as  well  as 
by  those  of  Lima,  and  most  of  the  Spanish  inhabitants  declar- 
ing in  favour  of  the  government,  the  insurgents  were  overpow- 
ered, and  compelled  to  submit.  Tupac  Amru,  and  most  of 
the  principal  leaders,  were  put  to  death  in  a  manner  cruel  and 
abhorrent  to  the  feelings  of  humanity  in  the  extreme.  The 
loyalty  'of  the  Creoles  led  them  to  take  part  with  the  govern- 
ment, notwithstanding  the  oppression  which  they  suffered,  on 
an  occasion  when  it  was  in  their  power,  by  joining  with  tho 
Indians,  to  have  effected  a  political  revolution. 

Before  this  insurrection  was  suppressed,  the  Spanish  gov- 
ernment was  alarmed  by  civil  commotions  in  New  Granada, 
In  1781,  some  new  regulations  and  additional  taxes  adopted 
by  Regente  Pineres,  the  viceroy,  were  opposed  by  almost  the 


94  SKETCH    OF    THE    HlS'fORV 

whole  population  of  the  province  of  Socorro.  An  armed  mul- 
titude, amounting  to  seventeen  thousand,  marched  toward** 
Santa  Fe,  crying  "  Long  live  the  king — death  to  our  bad  gov- 
ernors." The  viceroy  not  being  able  to  oppose  them  in  arms, 
had  recourse  to  superstition :  they  advanced  without  opposi- 
tion to  within  about  12  leagues  of  the  capital,  where,  instead  of 
being  confronted  by  an  army,  they  were  met  by  Qongora  the* 
archbishop,  in  his  pontifical  robes,  holding  the  host  in  hi^ 
hands.  The  suddenness  and  surprize  of  this  appeal  to  their 
religious  feelings,  filled  them  with  awe  and  timidity.  The 
archbishop  availing  himself  of  the  happy  moment,  proposed  a 
conference  to  Don  Salvador  Plata  their  leader,  which  resulted 
in  an  accommodation,  and  the  dispersion  of  the  malecontents. 
But  the  terms  of  capitulation  were  not  adhered  to/f  These  in- 
dications of  a  spirit  of  reform  and  freedom  in  the  colonies,  oc- 
casioned the  greatest  jealousy  and  alarm  in  the  Court  of  Mad- 
rid, and  the  adoption  of  such  severe  and  harsh  measures  to 
suppress  it,  as  rather  tended  to  increase  the  evil.  Printing 
presses  were  prohibited,  even  in  towns  of  forty  or  fifty  thou- 
sand inhabitants,  and  books,  of  almost  every  description,  were 
proscribed,  as  dangerous  and  seditious.^  In  New  Granada, 
several  persons,  merely  on  suspicion  of  entertaining  revolu- 
tionary designs,  were  subjected  to  the  torture  ;  and  similar 
measures,  of  a  distrustful  policy,  were  pursued  in  other  pro* 
vinces,  all  of  which  tended  to  increase  the  discontents  of  the 
colonists.  Nothing  was  done  to  conciliate  their  feelings,  or 
redress  the  grievances  of  which  they  complained,  or  which 
even  had  the  appearance  of  reforming  any  of  the  glaring  abu- 
ses that  every  where  prevailed.  Power  and  coercion  were  the 
only  means  made  use  of;  the  sword,  the  rack,  and  the  inqui- 
sition, were  to  control  the  minds  as  well  as  the  bodies  of  the 
colonists,  and  convince  them  that  they  had  no  greater  liber- 
ties, no  other  rights  than  those  of  submission  to  the  will  of  an 
arbitrary  tyranny,  ^y^v 

The  political  events  which  occurred  in  Europe,  subsequent- 
ly to  1778,  produced  a  spirit  of  political  inquiry,  that  spread 
over  that  continent,  and  even  reached  the  shores  of  the  Span- 
ish dominions  in  America,  where  light  and  liberty  had  so  long 
been  proscribed  and  shut  out,  as  the  greatest  evils  that  could 
afflict  the  human  race.  Many  of  the  Spanish  Creoles  inform- 
ed themselves  with  the  history  and  the  principles  of  the 
American  and  French  Revolutions;  and  the  .more  they  be- 
came acquainted  with  liberty,  the  more  lovely  it  appeared,  and 
the  more  odious  the  tyranny  of  the  Spanish  colonial  govern- 
ment. Elevated  by  such  sentiments,  and  relying  on  the  assur* 
ances  of  assistance  from  the  British,  derived  from  the  procla* 


OP   SPANISH     AMERICA.  95' 

mation*  of  the  Governor  of  Trinidad,  a  number  of  Creoles  at  ' 
Caraccas,  in  1797,  formed  a  plan  to  revolutionize  that  prov- 
ince. When  on  the  eve  of  making  the  attempt  to  carry  thei? 
plans  into  execution,  the  conspiracy  was  discovered,  and  Don 
M.  Gual  and  J.  M.  Espana,  the  apparent  leaders,  escaped  to 
a  neighbouring  island.  Two  years  after,  the  latter,  having  the 
presumption  to  return  to  La  Guayra,  was  seized,  condemned, 
and  executed,  and  thus  became  one  of  the  first  martyrs  of  Co- 
lombian liberty. 

It  had  long  been  a  favourite  project  of  Mr.  Pitt  to  aid  the 
emancipation  of  South  America,  and  to  open  a  trade  with  that 
country.  He  had  frequent  conferences  with  the  ex-Jesuit 
Juan  Pablo  Viscardi  Gusman,  a  native  of  Peru,  and  an  enthu- 
siast in  favour  of  the  independence  of  America,  who  repre- 

*  The  following-  is  the  proclamation  referred  to ; — "  By  virtue  of 
an  official  paper,  which  I,  the  governor  of  this  Island  of  Trinidad, 
have  received  from  the  right  honourable  Henry  Dundas,  minister  of 
his  Brittanic  Majesty  for  foreign  affairs,  dated  7th  April,  1797,  which 
I  here  publish  in  obedience  to  orders,  and  for  the  use  which  your  Ex- 
cellencies may  draw  from  its  publication,  in  order  that  you  may  com- 
municate its  tenor,  which  is  literally  as  follows  : — '  The  object  which 
at  present  I  desire  most  particularly  to  recommend  to  your  attention, 
is  the  means  which  might  be  best  adapted  to  liberate  the  people  of  the 
continent  near  to  the  Island  of  Trinidad,  from  the  oppressive  and  ty- 
rannic system  which  supports,  with  so  much  rigour,  the  monopoly  of 
commerce,  under  the  title  of  exclusive  registers,  which  their  govern- 
ment licenses  demand  ;  also  to  draw  the  greatest  advantages  possible, 
and  which  the  local  situation  of  the  island  presents,  by  opening  a  di- 
rect and  free  communication  with  the  other  parts  of  trie  world,  with- 
out prejudice  to  the  commerce  of  the  British  nation.  In  order  to  ful- 
fil this  intention  with  greater  facility,  it  will  be  prudent  for  your  Ex- 
cellency to  animate  the  inhabitants  of  Trinidad  in  keeping  up  the 
communication  which  they  had  with  those  of  Terra  Firma,  previous 
to  the  reduction  of  that  island;  under  the  assurance,  that  they  will 
find  there  an  entrepot,  or  general  magazine,  of  every  sort  of  goods 
whatever.  To  this  end,  his  Bi  ittannic  iVlajesty  has  determined,  in 
council,  to  grant  freedom  to  the  ports  of  Trinidad,  with  a  direct 
trade  to  Great  Britain.' 

"  With  regard  to  the  hopes  you  entertain  of  raising  the  spirits  of 
those  persons,  with  whom  you  are  in  correspondence,  towards  en- 
couraging the  inhabitants  to  resist  the  oppressive  authority  of  their 
government*  I  have  little  more  to  say,  than  that  they  may  be  certain 
that,  whenever  they  are  in  that  disposition*  they  may  recewe,  at  your 
hands,  all  the  succours  to  be  expected  from  his  Brittanic  Majesty  *  be  it 
with  forces,  or  with  arms  and  ammunition  to  any  extent  ;  with  the  as- 
suran*e<  that  the  views  of  his  Brittanic  Majesty,  'go  no  farther  than  to 
secure  to  them  their  independence*  without  pretending  to  any  sovereign" 
ty  over  their  country \  nor  even  to  interfere  in  the  privileges  of  the  peo- 
ple, nor  in  their  political,  civil^or  religious  rights." 

THOMAS  PICTON,  &c.  &c. 
Puerto  de  Espana,  26th  June,  1797. 


96  SKETCH    OP    THE   HISTORY 

sented  the  country  to  be  impatient  under  the  Spanish  yoke,  and 
ripe  for  revolt.  He  also  published  in  London  an  appeal  to  hi&4 
countrymen,  using  all  the  powers  of  his  eloquence,  in  attempt- 
ing to  bring  them  to  a  sense  of  their  degraded  condition.  Th6 
British  ministry  encouraged  general  Miranda  in  his  designs  to 
revolutionise  Venezuela,  and  aided  the  premature  expedi- 
tion which  he  fitted  out  in  1801  ;  and  furnished  the  funds,  fo¥ 
that  he  afterwards  fitted  out  from  the  United  States  in  1806, 
though  it  was  done  without  the  assistance  or  sanction  of  Con- 
gress. This  expedition  failed  without  accomplishing  any 
thing,  and  a  number  of  young  men  from  the  United  States, 
falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards,  became  victims  of  their 
own  credulity,  and  the  cruelty  of  tyrannical  power.  It  is  said, 
that  during  Mr.  Adams'  administration,  the  British  Ministry 
made  proposals  to  our  government  to  assist  in  the  emancipa- 
lion  of  the  Spanish  Colonies,  which  did  not  meet  a  favourable 
reception. 

The  failure  of  Mirandas'  expedition  did  not  discourage  the 
British  government,  for  in  1806,  Spain  then  being  in    alliance 
with  France  in  the  war  which  prevailed  in  Europe,  they  fitted 
out  a  squadron  under  Sir  Home  Popham,  which  entered  the 
La  Plata,  on  the  25th  of  June  anchored  about  twelve  miles 
below  Buenos  Ayres,  where  the  troops  disembarked  without 
opposition.      The  inhabitants,    and  the  Viceroy,  Soliemente, 
were  filled  with  consternation.     After  experiencing  a  feeble 
opposition  at  Rio   Chueto,  three  miles  from  the  City,  Gen. 
Beresford  entered  the  Capital,  and  took  possession  of  the  Cit- 
adel.    Don  J.  M.  Pueyredon,  afterwards  director,  at  the  head 
of  a  company  of  hussars,  was  the  only  officer   who  did  any 
thing  to  oppose  the  advance  of  the  English.     The  Spaniards, 
on  learning  the  small  number  of  their  enemies,  determined  to 
expel  them.     The  viceroy  had  escaped  to  Montevideo,  and 
Liniers,  a  French  emigrant,  but  an  officer  in  the  Spanish  ser- 
vice, passed  over  to  the  eastern  shore  of  the  river,  exciting  the 
people  to  arms.     The  Viceroy  collected  one  thousand  regu 
lars,  which  he  joined  with  those  of  Liniers,  to  whom  the  com 
mand  of  the  united  forces  was  given.     With  these   troops 
Liniers  immediately  re-crossed  the  river,  when  the  inhabitant 
flocking  around  his  standard,  soon  enabled  him  to  attack  th 
British  with  great  effect,  compelling  them  after  they  had  sus 
tained  a  heavy  loss,  to  surrender  on  the  12th  of  August,  1806 
Soon  after  this  event  re-enforcements  arrived  from  the  Cape  o 
Good  Hope,  which  enabled  Sir  Home  Popham  to  reduce  Mon 
tevideo  by  storm. 

This  expedition,  as  appeared  from  the  trial  of  Sir  Horn 
JPopham,  was  not  expressly  authorised  by  the  British  ministry 


OF    SPANISH  AMERICA.  97 

but  was  so  far  from  being  disapproved  by  them  that  it  was  fol- 
lowed up  by  a  bold  and  extensive  plan  of  conquest.  Two  squad- 
rons each  with  a  large  body  of  troops,  one  commanded  by 
Gen.  Whitlock,  the  other  by  Gen.  Crawford  were  fitted 
out  for  the  capture  of  Buenos  Ayres  ;  after  accomplishing 
this,  Crawford  had  received  orders  to  proceed  around  Cape 
Horn  and  capture  Valparaiso  ;  and  for  the  more  effectually 
securing  their  conquest,  to  establish  military  posts  across  the 
continent,  from  Buenos  Ayres  to  Valparaiso.  The  object  of 
the  ministry  was  entirely  changed  since  1797  ;  now  it  was  not 
to  aid  the  inhabitants,  in  establishing  their  independence,  but 
to  subjugate  the  country.  The  commanders,  in  their  instruc- 
tions from  Mr.  Windharn,  secretary  of  war,  were  directed  to 
discourage  all  hopes  of  any  other  change  in  the  condition  of 
these  countries  than  that  of  their  being  annexed  to  the  crown 
of  Great  Britain .* 

On  the  10th  of  May,  1807,  the  expedition  under  general 
Whitlock  arrived  at  Montevideo,  and  on  the  1 5th  of  June  fol- 
lowing, that  under  general  Crawford  arrived.  General  Whit- 
lock who  assumed  the  chief  command,  had  now  under  his 
controj  about  ten  thousand  of  the  best  troops  in  the  British 
service,  and  made  immediate  preparations  for  attacking  the 
capital.  The  Viceroy  arriving  at  Buenos  Ayres,  was  opposed 
by  the  inhabitants,  and  finally  deposed  by  the  Cabildo.  Li- 
niers  being  raised  to  the  chief  command,  was  assisted  by  the 
inhabitants  in  making  great  exertions  to  defend  the  capital. 
Every  avenue  to  the  city  was  obstructed  by  breastworks  of  hides 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  thick :  small  pieces  of  artillery 
were  planted  on  the  houses,  which  were  barricadoed  and  form- 
ed into  fortresses,  and  all  the  citizens  were  under  arms.  The 
British  having  landed  on  the  28th  of  June,  traversed  a  swampy 
country  of  about  thirty  miles  and  presented  themselves  on  the 
morning  of  the  5th  of  July,  in  front  of  Buenos  Ayres.  The 
British  general  having  formed  his  troops  in  a  line  along 
the  suburbs,  commenced  the  attack — and  never  were  men 
more  surprised  with  their  reception.  The  cannon,  planted  on 
the  trenches  which  intersected  the  streets,  poured  a  destruc- 
tive fire  of  grape  on  the  advancing  columns,  while  from  the 
roofs  and  windows  of  the  houses,  they  were  assailed  with 
appalling  effect,  by  an  incessant  shower  of  musketry,  bombs 
and  hand  grenades.  As  the  English  advanced  farther  into  the 
city,  they  exposed  themselves  to  a  hotter  and  more  destruc- 
tive fire  ;  and  whilst  thus  exposed  to  be  mown  down,  the 
enemy  were  out  of  their  reach,  and  in  a  great  measure  secure 

*  Documents  annexed  to  report  of  Whitlock  s  trial. 
VOL.  I.  9 


98  SKETCH    OP    THE    HISTORY 

from  their  fire.  The  column  under  general  Auchmuty,  which 
entered  the  upper  part  of  the  town,  after  a  sanguinary  con- 
flict, took  possession  of  a  large  building  where  bull-fights 
were  held  ;  and  that  which  entered  the  south  part,  led  by 
general  Crawford,  after  losing  one  half  its  number,  took  shel- 
ter in  a  large  church  ;  here  they  defended  themselves  for 
some  time,  but  finally  were  obliged  to  surrender.  The  British 
in  this  engagement  lost  one  third  of  their  whole  army.  The 
next  day  an  armistice  was  concluded  by  which  they  agreed  to 
evacuate  the  La  Plata  in  two  months. 

Never  was  there  a  more  complete  failure  of  an  expedition,  or 
perhaps  a  plan  of  conquest  founded  on  more  erroneous  con- 
ceptions. The  British  ministry  expected  that  the  inhabitants 
cf  the  country  were  so  uneasy  under  the  Spanish  yoke,  that 
they  would  flock  to  their  standards,  and  instructions  were  giv- 
en general  Whitlock  for  organizing  a  military  force  in  the 
country.  But  instead  of  this,  they  found  not  a  single  friend ; 
all  the  inhabitants  took  arms,  and  manifested  a  most  violent  an- 
imosity towards  them.  They  refused  after  the  armistice,  to 
purchase  even  a  single  article  of  their  merchandise,  although 
at  the  very  time  they  were  suffering  for  the  want  of  them.* 
Mad  the  English  come  to  the  aid  of  the  inhabitants,  in  throw- 
ing off  the  Spanish  yoke  and  establishing  the  independence  of 
the  country,  the  expedition  would  in  all  probability  have  prov- 
ed successful,  and  thus  have  secured  to  Britain  her  primary 
ebject — the  trade  of  the  country. 

Notwithstanding  the  fatal  termination  of  this  enterprise, 
another  expedition  still  more  formidable  was  prepared  for  the 
same  object,  the  destination  of  which  was  changed  by  the 
breaking  out  of  the  revolution  in  Spain.  These,  and  other  at- 
tempts made  on  the  coast  of  the  Spanish  colonies,  induced  the 
government  to  adopt  measures  for  providing  a  larger  mili- 
tary force*  in  the  sea-ports  ;  and  the  indications  of  a  revolu- 
tionary spirit  which  had  been  disclosed,  so  alarmed  the 
court  of  Madrid  as  to  occasion  new  military  regulations, 
for  the  greater  security  of  the  capital,  and  to  enable  the 
viceroys  and  generals  of  the  provinces  to  support  each  oth- 
er in  case  of  civil  commotions.  It  is  to  the  subversion  of  the 
monarchy  of  Spain,  by  Bonaparte,  that  in  a  great  measure  the 
world  is  indebted  for  the  independence  of  Spanish  America, 
and  all  the  hopes  inspired  by  the  successful  and  patriotic  ca- 
icer  it  has  hitherto  pursued,  for  its  present  condition  and  glo- 
rious prospects.  Thus  an  act  of  tyranny  and  usurpation  in 
•ne  hemisphere,  was  rendered  conducive  to  the  establishment 
of  liberty  in  another,  and  the  emancipation  of  a  large  portion 
of  the  globe. 


HISTORY 

AND  PRESENT  STATE  OF 

MEXICO. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Geographical  description  of  the  country — its  mountains,  rivers, 
bays,  harbours — climate,  soil,  productions,  mines — the  mining 
districts — annual  produce  of  the  mines — increase  since  the  re- 
volution— manner  of  working  them—commerce — articles  of 
exportation — duties  on  importations — manufactories. 

THE  Mexican  nation,  or  republic,  is  composed  of  the  prov- 
inces of  the  ancient  Viceroyalty  of  New  Spain,  the  captain- 
generalcy  of  Yucatan,  the  commandances-ge*»er»l  of  tlie  east, 
ern  and  western  internal  provinces,  and  the  province  of  Chiapa, 
which  formerly  belonged  to  the  captain-generalcy  of  Guatamala. 
This  territory  extends  from  lat.  15  to  lat.  42,  north,  or  about 
1875  miles  from  north  to  south.  On  the  northern  boundary  it 
extends  from  the  Red  River  to  the  Pacific,  a  distance  of  more 
than  one  thousand  miles' ;  its  least  breadth,  on  its  southern 
boundary,  is  narrow,  not  being  more  than  about  two  hundred 
miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  territory  of  the  Uni- 
ted States  ;  on  the  east  by  the  United  States  and  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  ;  on  the  south  by  the  states  of  the  Republic  of  Guata- 
mala ;  arid  on  the  west  and  south-west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
Mexico,  like  the  countries  in  South  America,  is  traversed  by 
extensive  ranges  of  mountains,  which  much  resemble  the  An- 
des in  their  general  character,  but  from  latitude  18,  near  the 
Pacific,  to  latitude  40,  north,  these  ranges  present  some  pe- 
culiar characteristics,  which  distinguish  them  from  most  other 
mountains  in  the  world.  A  broad  elevated  plain,  or  tract, 
called  table-land,  prevails  through  this  vast  region,  at  the 


100  HISTORY    AND    PRESENT 

elevation  of  from  six,  to  nine  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  There  are  many  intervening  vallies,  watered  by  riv- 
ers or  lakes,  that  intersect  this  tract  of  table-land,  extending 
more  than  fifteen  hundred  milps,  and  terminating  at  about  la- 
titude 40,  where  it  imperceptibly  declines  to  the  north.  Ma- 
ny lofty  elevations  on  these  ranges,  particularly  the  group  in 
the  central  plain,  or  table  land,  between  Mexico  and  the  city 
of  Cordova,  one  of  which,  called  the  Popocatepetl,  or  smoke 
mountain,  is  seventeen  thousand  seven  hundred  and  sixteen 
feet  in  height ;  and  another,  called  the  Star  Mountain,  is  sev- 
enteen thousand  three  hundred  and  seventy-one  feet.  There 
are  five  burning  volcanic  mountains  in  Mexico ;  the  Ouzaba, 
Popocatepetl,  Tustla,  Jorullo,  and  Colinia  ;  but  they  are  not 
often  subject  to  eruptions,  and  earthquakes  seldom  occur. 

In  the  20th  degree  of  north  latitude,  at  an  elevation  of  fifteen 
thousand  feet,  is  a  region  of  perpetual  snow  ;  and  in  the 
month  of  January  the  region  of  snow  descends  to  the  elevation 
of  twelve  thousand  feet,  and  sometimes  snow  falls  at  Mexico 
and  Valladolid,  which  are  more  than  three  hundred  feet  lower. 
On  the  declivities  of  the  Cordillera,  there  frequently  occur 
fogs  and  humid  winds.  The  western  descent  from  the  table- 
lands, towards  Acapulco,  is  gradual,  and  affords  a  constant 
and  regular  change,  from  a  cold  to  a  hot  climate.  This  de- 
scent is  so  gradual  and  regular,  that  a  road  might  be  made  fit 
for  carriages  ;  but  the  descent  on  the  eastern  declivity,  to- 
wards Vera  Cruz,  is  rapid  and  steep,  and  hitherto  has  been 
passable  only  by  mules  ;  tills  oescent,  however,  would  be 
passable  for  carriages,  if  the  superb  causeway,  which  was  com- 
mencea  about  the°middle  of  the  last  century,  should  ever  be 
completed. 

On  the  maritime  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  between  the 
mountains  and  the  sea,  the  surface  of  the  country  is  low  and 
diversified  with  hills.  The  Peninsula  of  Yucatan  is  principal- 
ly a  level  tract  of  country  ;  in  the  north-east  section  of  the  re- 
public, bordering  on  the  United  States,  and  in  the  vallies  of 
the  great  rivers,  are  extensive  plains  and  level  tracts.  There 
are  also  many  large  expansions  of  level  land  on  the  borders  of 
the  Pacific,  both  on  the  coast  and  in  the  valleys  of  the  rivers. 

The  maritime  waters  of  Mexico  are  extensive  and  valuable, 
affording  the  greatest  facilities  for  commerce  and  navigation. 
On  the  west  and  south-west  the  country  borders  on  the  great 
Pacific  for  more  than  two  thousand  miles,  and  from  this  cp ast 
projects  the  unrivalle4  Peninsula  of  California,  to  the  extent 
of  nearly  ten  degrees  of  latitude,  in  a  direction  parallel  with 
the  coast,  forming  a  most  magnificent  gulf  of  that  name.  On 
the  east,  the  country  borders  extensively  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexi- 

j 


STATE    OF    MEXICO.  101 

CD,  the  great  inland  sea  of  the  American  continent,  From, 
this  coast,  likewise,  projects  another  peninsula,  called  Yuca- 
tan, which  is  also  of  great  extent,  and  forms  the  bay  of  Cam- 
peachy.  In  addition  to  the  waters  of  two  oceans,  the  Mexican 
territories  are  watered  by  numerous  rivers  and  lakes ;  but 
few  of  the  rivers  are  valuable  for  navigation.  The  largest  is 
the  Rio  del  Norte,  which  rises  near  the  head  waters  of  the  Ar- 
kansas, and  after  a  course  of  nearly  eighteen  hundred  miles, 
in  a  south-easterly  direction,  discharges  its  waters  into  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  In  its  course,  this  noble  river  waters  an  ex- 
tensive valley,  and,  like  the  Mississippi,  has  its  annual  freshets. 

To  the  east  of  the  Rio  del  Norte  are  the  Colorado  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  Brassos,  which  take  their  rise  ih  the 
highlands,  near  the  border  of  the  United  States,  and  after  a 
course  of  seven  hundred  miles,  discharge  their  waters  into 
the  Mexican  Gulf.  Further  east  are  the  Red  River  and  the 
Sabine,  each  of  which  forms  apart  of  the  eastern  boundary  of 
the  republic. 

To  the  south  of  the  Rio  del  Norte,  the  most  considerable 
river  is  the  Tampico,  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  two  large 
streams,  called  the  Panuco  and  Montazuma,  which  water  a 
great  extent  of  country.  The  united  waters  of  these  two  riv- 
ers are  discharged  into  the  bay  or  lake  of  Tampico.  The  Tula, 
one  of  the  head  branches  of  the  Montazuma,  has  its  source  in 
the  mountains,  near  the  valley  of  Mexico.  South  of  the  river 
Tampico,  is  the  lake  Tamuacua,  which  communicates  with  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  by  the  Rio  Tuspa.  The  next  most  consider- 
able river  is  the  Rio  de  Xamapa,  which  discharges  its  waters 
a  short  distance  below  Vera  Cruz.  There  are  numerous  other 
smaller  rivers,  which  intersect  the  extensive  maritime  border 
of  the  eastern  coast .  the  most  important  of  these  is  the  Guas- 
cualco,  which  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  in  latitude  18  de-- 
grees  30  minutes.  There  is  an  excellent  harbour  at  the  mouth 
of  this  river,  and  there  is  said  also  to  be  a  practicable  route 
for  a  canal  by  the  head  waters  of  this  stream,  to  the  bay  of  Te- 
huantepec,  on  the  Pacific  Ocean,  in  lat.  16  deg.  30  min.  The 
Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  is  about  one  hundred  and  twenty-five 
miles  wide  ;  and  from  the  summit  of  a  mountain  on  the  isth- 
mus, both  oceans  may  be  seen  in  a  clear  day.  Farther  east, 
are  the  Tabasco,  Oeozingo,  and  the  Rio  Chiatlan,  all  consid- 
erable streams,  which  empty  into  the  bay  of  Campeachy. 

The  greatest  river  that  discharges  its  waters  into  the  Pacific 
in  the  Mexican  Republic,  is  the  Colorado  of  the  west,  which 
rises  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in  latitude  40  N.,  near  the  head 
waters  of  the  Rio  del  Norte,  and  is  formed  by  two  branches,  of 
which  the  eastern  is  called  the  Nabojoa,  and  the  western,  Za- 


102  HISTORY    AND    PRESENT 

guananas,  and  in  its  course  it  receives  another  large  branch, 
called  the  Gila.  The  waters  of  the  Colorado,  after  running  a 
course  of  nearly  one  thousand  miles,  are  discharged  into  the 
Gulf  of  California,  in  lat.  33  N.  and  are  said  to  be  navigable 
for  sea  vessels  three  hundred  miles.  The  next  most  consider- 
able river  is  the  Santiago,  which  unites  with  the  Pacific  in  lat. 
21  deg.  30  min.  N.  The  principal  head  branch  of  this  river  is 
Rio  Larma,  which  has  its  source  within  twenty  miles  of  the 
valley  of  Mexico,  and  passes  through  lake  Chapala,  its  entire 
course  being  nearly  six  hundred  miles.  The  .whole  coast  of 
the  Pacific  Ocean  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  is  intersected  with 
rivers,  some  of  which  are  navigable,  and  afford  good  harbours. 
The  Chimalapa  is  the  most  important,  from  the  circumstance 
of  its  uniting  with  the  bay  Tehuantepec  already  mentioned. 
The  largest  lake  in  Mexico  is  the  Chapala,  situated  in  lat.  20 
north,  and  covers  1 225  square  miles.  The  river  Santiago 
pours  out  of  this  lake.  There  are  five  lakes  in  the  valley  of 
Mexico  ;  Chalco,  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  valley,  co- 
vers fifty  square  miles  ;  this  lake  has  no  outlet,  and  is  separa- 
ted by  a  dike  from  a  long  narrow  lake,  called  Xochimilco, 
which  approaches  within  four  and  a  half  miles  of  the  capital. 
Lake  Tezcuco,  which  was  formerly  much  larger  than  it  is  at 
present,  lies  north  of  Chalco,  and  contains  77  square  miles  ; 
the  waters  are  shallow,  generally  not  more  than  from  nine  to 
sixteen  feet  deep,  and  at  some  places  much  less.  Lake  San 
Christobal  lies  less  than  a  mile  from  Tezcuco,  in  a  north-west 
direction,  and  covers  27  square  miles ;  and  three  miles  further 
north-west,  is  Lake  Zumpango,  which  covers  ten  square  miles. 
The  River  Guantitlan,  the  present  source  of  the  Montazuma, 
formerly  emptied  itself  into  this  lake  ;  but  to  prevent  inunda- 
tions, its  course  was  diverted  out  of  the  valley.  Mexico  suf- 
fered severely  from  inundations  during  its  early -history,  and 
to  obviate  this  evil,  it  was  proposed,  in  1607,  to  turn-  the 
waters  of  the  Rio  Guantitlan  and  those  of  Lake  Zumpango  out 
of  the  valley,  and  after  several  unsuccessful  attempts,  this 
great  work  was  completed  in  1783.  The  whole  length  of  the 
drain  is  twelve  miles  and  four  fifths  ;  at  the  top  it  is  from  280 
to  360  feet  wide,  but  narrow  at  the  bottom  ;  and  the  depth  for 
more  than  two  miles  is  from  100  to  300  feet ;  and  for  more 
than  half  a  mile  from  150  to  200  feet ;  this  canal  is  called  the 
drain  of  Huehuetoca,  and  has  since  been  extended  to  lakes 
San  Christobal  and  Tezcuco.  The  other  lakes  are  Pascuaro, 
a  beautiful  sheet  of  water  near  Valladolid,  and  Panas  and  Mex- 
tillan  in  Durango. 

The  principal  port  on  the  Mexican  coast  of  the  Atlantic,  is 
the  ancient  one  of  Vera  Cruz,  the  nearest  Atlantic  port  to  the 


STATE    OP    MEXICO.  103 

city  of  Mexico.  The  harbour  of  Vera  Cruz  is  very  insecure, 
although  formerly  the  port  where  the  Spanish  galleons  or  flota 
entered.  To  the  north  of  Vera  Cruz  is  the  much  frequented 
port  of  Tampico,  situated  on  the  south  side  of  the  river  of  that 
name,  three  hundred  and  twelve  miles  north-east  of  the  city  of 
Mexico  ;  and  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  or  bay,  is  the 
port  of  Altamira.  From  Rio  Tampico,  the  Mexican  coast, 
which  extends  nearly  eight  hundred  miles  in  a  north-easterly 
direction  to  the  mouth  of  the  river  Sabine,  is  indented  by  many 
natural  harbours,  but  there  are  only  a  few  settlements.  To 
the  south  of  Vera  Cruz,  are  the  ports  of  Alvarado  and  Guas- 
cualco,  at  the  isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  and  Campeachy,  on 
the  peninsula  of  Yucatan. 

The  principal  ports  on  the  Pacific,  are  the  bays  of  Tehuan- 
tepec and  Acapulco,  in  north  lat.  19°  12',  and  San  Bias,  in 
north  lat.  21°  32',  situated  on  a  bay  of  the  same  name,  which 
receives  the  waters  of  the  great  river  Santiago.  Above  San 
Bias,  in  the  Gulf  of  California,  there  are  many  good  harbours, 
but  few  considerable  settlements. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  that  part  of  Mexico  which  is  in- 
cluded within  the  tropical  regions,  has  but  two  seasons,  the  wet 
and  the  dry ;  the  rainy  season  commences  the  beginning  of 
June,  and  lasts  for  four  or  five  months  ;  the  remainder  of  the 
year  is  dry  and  pleasant.  The  first  rains  jare  accompanied 
with  violent  electrical  explosions,  and  on  their  approach,  the 
inhabitants  of  the  seaports  on  the  Pacific  coast  usually  retreat 
to  the  highlands,  where  the  climate  is  known  to  be  the  most 
humid.  The  lowlands  of  the  coast  within  the  tropics  possess 
a  hot  climate,  and  are  the  most  unhealthy  to  strangers  from 
northern  latitudes.  The  coast  of  the  Pacific  is  warmer  than 
that  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  in  the  same  degree  of  latitude, 
with  the  exception  of  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan,  which  is  warm, 
dry,  and  very  healthy.  The  highlands,  at  the  elevation  of  four 
or  five  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  enjoy  perpet- 
ually a  soft,  spring-like  temperature,  which  never  varies  more 
than  eight  or  nine  degrees.  The  climate  of  this  region  is  very 
salubrious,  but  it  is  often  enveloped  in  thick  fogs.  At  the  el- 
evation of  seven  thousand  feet,  another  climate  commences, 
the  mean  temperature  of  which  is  about  60  degrees.  The  city 
of  Mexico  is  in  this  region,  which  is  healthy,  and  yields  abun- 
dantly the  productions  of  both  tropical  and  temperate  regions. 

The  mean  temperature  of  the  table-lands,  within  the  tropics, 
at  an  elevation  of  about  one  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea,  is  77  of  Fahrenheit.  From  the  peculiar  geographical 
character  of  this  country,  it  possesses,  in  the  same  parallel  of 


104  HISTORY    AND    PRESENT 

latitude,  all  the  varieties  of  climate,  from  the  regions  of  perpet- 
ual frost,  to  the  continual  and  intense  heat  of  a  tropical  sun. 
This  is  an  advantage  enjoyed  by  few  countries  in  the  world, 
and  would  have  appeared  strange  and  incredible  to  the  an- 
cients, who  supposed  the  tropical  regions  to  be  uninhabitable, 
in  consequence  of  their  intense  heat.  The  climate  in  the  tro- 
pical regions  of  Mexico  possesses  almost  perfect  uniformity  as 
to  heat  and  cold. 

On  the  coasts,  particularly  on  the  Pacific,  the  tropical  heat 
prevails,  and,  near  Acapulco,  the  climate  is  the  hottest  and 
most  unhealthy  in  the  world  ;  on  the  table-land  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  from  about  four  thousand  to  five  thousand  feet  there 
prevails  perpetual  spring  ;  the  temperature  being  uniformly 
soft,  and  spring-like,  and  seldom  varies  more  than  nine  de- 
grees. Here  the  mean  temperature,  throughout  the  whole 
year,  is  from  60  deg.  to  70  deg.  and  the  extremes  of  heat  and 
cold,  and  the  pleasing  varieties  of  the  seasons,  are  wholly  un- 
known. Many  sections  of  the  table-lands  suffer  severely  from 
drought,  and  this  is  particularly  the  case  with  much  of  the 
country  bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  California,  where  there 
are  extensive  arid  districts,  condemned  to  perpetual  desola- 
tion. The  northern  and  north-eastern  sections  of  the  federa- 
tion, enjoy  a  climate  similar  to  the  United  States,  he  althy 
and  productive.  The  country  bordering  on  the  Pacific, 
extending  to  the  42d  degree  of  north  latitude,  belongs  to  the 
Mexican  Union.  This  region  is  much  milder  than  in  the 
same  degree  of  latitude  on  the  Atlantic,  and  enjoys  a  de- 
lightful and  salubrious  climate,  a  fertile  soil,  and  is  rich  in 
natural,  agricultural,  and  metallic  productions. 

Productions. — The  table-land  is  generally  good  ;  and  when 
it  is  not  too  arid,  very  productive  ;  all  the  fruits  and  grains  of 
the  northern  parts  of  America  and  Europe,  are  produced  at 
the  elevation  of  six  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
whilst  the  low  country,  bordering  on  the  coasts,  yields  in  pro- 
portion all  the  productions  of  the  tropics.  Maize,  a  sort  of 
Indian  corn,  is  common  to  both,  and  is  extensively  cultivated 
in  the  low  country,  two  crops  being  raised  annually,  Tt  is  the 
principal  staple  of  the  country,  and  when  the  crop  fails,  Hurn- 
boldt  says  "  there  is  a  famine  in  Mexico."  Wheat  is  cultiva- 
ted with  success  on  the  table-land,  rye  and  barley  yield  abun- 
dantly, and  where  it  is  practicable  to  irrigate  the  soil,  it  affords 
almost  incredible  burdens.  The  quality  of  the  wheat  is  ex- 
cellent. The  sugar-cane  is  also  successfully  cultivated  on  the 
table-land,  which  likewise  produces,  in  great  profusion,  all  the 
vegetables  and  fruits  of  the  temperate  climates  of  America  and 


STATE  OF  MEXICO.  1®5 

Europe,  and  at  the  same  time  are  growing  in  the  lower  sec- 
tions, all  the  fruits  of  the  tropics,  in  equal  abundance. 

Cotton  is  cultivated  with  success  on  the  high  lands,  as  well 
as  the  low.  The  olive  and  the  vine  both  succeed  well,  but 
are  not  extensively  cultivated  ;  and  the  country  is  favourable 
to  the  production  of  tobacco,  indigo,  and  silk  ;  but  the  two 
last  articles  are  entirely  neglected,  and  the  first  has  suffered 
much  from  the  restrictions  of  the  Spanish  government.  The 
potatoe  is  raised  in  the  high  country,  and  the  yam  and  sweet 
potatoe  in  both  high  and  low  ;  rice,  the  banann  plant,  and 
manioc  root,  are  produced  abundantly  in  the  low  country,  and 
are  important  articles  of  food,  except  with  the  natives,  who 
subsist  principally  on  Indian  corn.  The  banana,  is  cultivated 
by  cuttings  or  shoots,  set  into  the  ground,  and  is  estimated  to 
yield  a  quantity  of  nutritive  food,  in  proportion  to  that  of 
wheat,  as  133  is  to  1,  and  of  potatoes,  as  44  is  to  1.  The 
fruit  ripens  the  10th  or  1 1th  month,  and  is  prepared  for  use  in 
various  ways  ;  it  is  dressed  like  the  potatoe,  dried  and  pound- 
ed into  flour,  or  preserved  like  figs  by  exposure  to  the  sun, 
which  gives  it  the  appearance  and  odour  of  smoked-ham. 
The  vanilla,  a  species  of  pimento,  forms  another  very  essential 
article  of  Mexican  agriculture  ;  it  abounds  on  the  eastern 
declivities  of  the  table-lands,  in  the  intendancies  of  Vera  Cruz 
and  Oaxaca.  It  is  generally  cultivated  by  the  Indians.  The 
medicinal  root,  jalap,  which  derives  its  name  from  the  dis- 
trict of  Jalapa,  is  found  in  shady .  vallies,  near  the  moun- 
tains, and  delights  in  a  temperate  climate.  The  cochineal 
insect,  one  of  the  richest  articles  of  Mexican  commerce,  is 
also  reared  extensively  in  Oaxaca.  A  large  proportion  of  the 
country  between  San  Luis  and  Tampico,  is  laid  out  as  grazing 
farms,  where  are  raised  great  numbers  of  horses,  mules,  cat- 
tle, and  sheep.  The  great  valley  of  the  Rio  del  Norte,  is  also 
said  to  be  very  favourable  for  grazing,  and  the  agricultural 
productions  of  temperate  climates.  There  are  many  other 
sections  of  the  Mexican  Federation  equally  favourable  for 
grazing,  and  the  country  is  well  supplied  with  domestic  an- 
imals, such  as  horses,  cattle,  mules,  sheep,  goats,  and  swine. 

The  table-lands  of  Mexico  are  intersected  by  many  rich 
and  fertile  vallies  ;  affording  inexhaustible  resources  for  agri- 
culture :  among  the  most  important,  is  that  of  Mexico,  in 
which  is  situated  the  great  city  of  the  same  name  ;  being  two 
hundred  and  thirty  miles  in  circumference,  and  having  an  ele- 
vation of  seven  thousand  four  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  This  valley  encloses  five  lakes,  which  communicate 
by  a  drain,  or  canal,  with  the  river  Montazuma.  There  are 
many  other  fertile  vallies  interspersed  among  the  table-lands, 
among  which  the  great  valley,  watered  by  the  River  Santiago> 


106  HISTORY    AND  PRESENT 

and  its  branches,  is  represented  to  be  one  of  the  richest, 
most  fertile,  and  highly  cultivated  districts  in  Mexico. 

Mines. — The  Metalic  treasures  of  Mexico,  surpass  those  of 
any  other  country  for  their  abundance,  and  excellence.  Bar- 
on Humboldt  says,  "  that  there  are  three  thousand  mines  of 
the  precious  metals  already  discovered  in  Mexico  ;"  and  he 
supposes  that  in  the  northern  sections  of  the  country,  great 
mineral  wealth  will  yet  be  discovered  in  the  rocks  of  seconda- 
ry formation. 

The  following  are  the  thirteen  most  considerable  mining 
districts  in  Mexico  : — 

1.  Guanaxuato,  near  a  city  of  the  same  name. 

2.  Catorce,  in  the  Intendancy  of  San  Luis  Potosi, 

3.  Zazatecas,  near  a  city  of  the  same  name. 

4.  Real  del  Monte,  in  Mexico. 

5.  Bolanos,in  Guadalaxara. 

6.  Guarisamey,  in  Durango. 

7.  Sombrerete,  in  Zacatecas. 

8.  Tasco,  in  Mexico. 

9.  Balopilas,  in  Durango. 

10.  Zimapan,  in  Mexico. 

11.  Fresmllo,  in  Zacatecas. 

12.  Ramos,  in  San  Luis  Potosi. 

13.  Parral,  in  Durango. 

The  tract  of  mountains  in  Mexico,  which  producoa  the 
greatest  quantity  of  silver,  is  situated  between  the  parallels  of 
21  and  24°  30' north  latitude  ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  the 
metalic  riches  of  Mexico  and  Peru  are  placed  in  both  hemis- 
pheres at  about  the  same  distance  from  the  equator.  The 
mine  of  Valenciana,  at  Guanaxuato,  is  supposed  to  be  the 
richest  in  Mexico,  and  has  furnished,  in  a  common  year,  from 
four  to  six  millions  of  dollars  in  silver,  and  from  two  to  three 
millions  of  dollars  in  gold.  The  annual  produce  of  the  mines 
of  Mexico  was  estimated,  before  the  re  volution,  at  twenty  two 
millions  of  dollars,  (about  ten  times  more  than  is  afforded  by 
all  the  mines  in  Europe)  of  which  Guanaxuato,  Catorce,  and 
Zacatecas,  yield  eleven  millions.  In  years  of  their  greatest 
prosperity,  the  mines  of  Mexico  have  produced  annually 
twenty-two  millions  of  dollars  in  silver,  and  about  one  million  in 
gold,  and  in  1796  the  silver  mines  attained  their  maximum,  and 
yielded  twenty-five  million  six  hundred  and  forty-four  thou- 
sand dollars.  The  gold  is  produced  principally  by  washing 
the  earth  and  sand.  Some  native  gold  is  found  in  veins  in  the 
province  of  Oaxaca  ;  but  the  greater  part  is  obtained  in  veins 
of  silver  ore.  The  silver  ore  is  not  rich  in  any  of  the  Mexican 
mines  ;  masses  of  native  silver  have  been  found  but  very  rare- 


STATE    OF    MEXICO.  107 

ly  ;  the  average  proportion  of  silver  is  three  or  four  ounces  in 
sixteen  hundred  ounces  of  ore.  At  the  commencement  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  the  entire  coinage  of  gold  and  silver, 
in  Mexico,  was  only  about  five  million  of  dollars  annually  ; 
since  which  period  the  product  has  been  constantly  in- 
creasing, and  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
amounted  to  six  times  that  quantity.  The  increase  and  ex- 
tension of  the  mining  operations  were  astonishingly  great, 
from  1790  to  the  commencement  of  the  late  revolution.  The 
cause  of  this  increase  Humboldt  attributes  "  to  the  increase 
»f  population  on  the  table-land,  the  progress  of  knowledge  and 
national  industry,  the  freedom  of  trade  conceded  tp  America 
in  1778,  the  facility  of  procuring  at  a  cheap  rate,  the  iron  and 
steel  necessary  for  the  mines,  the  fall  of  the  price  of  mercury, 
the  discovery  of  the  mines  of  Valenciana  and  Catorce,  and 
the  establishment  of  the  Tribunal  de  Mineria." 

The  mining  operations  are  carried  on  by  individuals.    When 
a  person  discovered  a  mine,   and  his  claim  to  the  discovery 
was  established  by  the  proper  tribunal,  the  king  granted  him  a 
district  of  land  around  the  mine,  in  the  direction  of  the  vein ; 
and  formerly  granted  to  him,  also,  a  certain  number  of  Indians 
to  work  the  mine.     The  proprietors  were  obliged  to  pay  one- 
tenth  of  the  product  to  the  king,  and  one  and  a  half  per  cent, 
besides,  together  with  the   coinage  and  seigniorage.      The 
working  of  a  mine  is  a  most  extensive  concern,   and  attended 
with  immense  expense,  and  conseqently  requires  a  vast  capi- 
tal.    In  the  mine  of  Valenciana  there  were,  before  the  revolu- 
tion, eighteen  hundred  workmen  in  the  interior  of  the  mine  ; 
an  administrator,  with  a  salary  of  twelve  thousand  dollars ;  an 
overseer,  a  number  of  under-overseers,  and  nine  miners.    The 
expense  of  powder  alone,  for  this  mine,  has  amounted  to  about 
eighty  thousand  dollars,  and  the  steel,  for  the  implements,  to 
twenty-seven  thousand.     When  Humboldt  visited  this  mine, 
in  1803,  a  new  draught-pit  was  opening,  which  was  to  be  sunk 
to   the  astonishing  depth  of  one  thousand  six  hundred  and 
eighty-five  feet  into  the  bowels  of  the  earth  ;  it  was  eighty- 
seven  feet  in  circumference,  and  estimated  to  cost  one  million 
of  dollars.     At  this  time  it  was  sunk  six  hundred  and  three 
feet,  and  it  was  calculated  to  take  twelve  years  to  complete  it. 
The  mines  are  sometimes  obliged  to  be  abandoned,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  influx  of  water,  and  pumps,  of  a  vast  size  and 
breadth,  are  used  to  raise  the  water  from  the  shafts,  of  im- 
mense depth.     A  pump  was  lately  cast  at  Cincinnati,  in  the 
United  States,  for  a  mine  in  Mexico,  of  one  thousand  feet  in 
length,  consisting  of  pieces  of  ten  feet  each.     The  profits  of 
the  mines  are  very  great ;  there  have  been  individuals  whosa 


108  HISTORY    AND   PRESENT 

income  from  them  has  been  one  hundred  and  ninety  thousand 
dollars  annually,  and  some  of  the  great  proprietors  have  en- 
joyed a  revenue  of  nearly  three  hundred  thousand  dollars. 

The  war,  which  deranged  all  kinds  of  industry,  was  partic- 
ularly fatal  to  the  mining  interests  ;  the  machinery  in  most  of 
the  mines  having  been  destroyed,  and  the  business  wholly 
abandoned.  It  is  said  that  in  1821,  the  entire  coinage  in  Mex- 
ico did  not  exceed  six  millions  of  dollars.  Since  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  present  government,  great  exertions  have  been 
made  to  revive  the  mining  operations,  for  which  the  republic 
is  indebted  in  an  eminent  degree  to  Mr.  Alman,  the  Secretary 
of  State,  and  one  of  the  most  enlightened  statesmen  in  Mexi- 
co. He  very  justly  considers  the  business  of  mining  as  one 
of  the  most  important  interests  of  Mexico,  regarding  it,  how- 
ever, only  in  the  light  of  an  extensive  manufacture,  which 
could  supply  the  most  important  staple  of  the  nation,  at  the 
same  time,  by  the  employment  of  a  large  population,  open  a 
market  for  the  products  of  the  soil,  and  thus  promote  the  inter- 
ests of  agriculture.  Alman  was  one  of  the  deputies  sent  from 
Mexico  to  the  Cortes  of  Spain  in  1820.  Whilst  in  Europe, 
he  visited  Paris  and  London,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  com- 
panies for  working  the  mines.  In  the  latter  place  he  succeed- 
ed in  establishing  a  company  called  the  "  United  Mexican 
Mining  Association."  By  the  last  report  of  the  secretary,  it 
appears  that  three  of  these  companies  have  been  formed  in 
England,  and  one  in  Germany,  for  mining  purposes  in  Mexico, 
and  that  the  mines  of  Ouanaxuato,  Valenciania,  Del  Monte, 
Rayas,  Cata,  Sirena  and  Catorce,  are  now  in  operation,  and 
large  capitals  invested.*  The  mines  of  Conception  and  Te- 
mascal tepee  have  been  drained  by  tiers  of  lifting  pumps,  ope- 
rated by  steam.  The  machinery  for  the  latter  mine  was  made 
in  New- York,  and  is  of  thirty  horse  power,  and  three  hundred 
yards  of  cast  iron  pipe,  was  contracted  for  at  the  foundry  in 
Louisville,  Kentucky,  in  1825,  for  the  mine  in  Catorce.  Its 
cost  is  10,000  dollars.  The  want  of  wood,  near  many  of  the 
mines,  is  an  objection  to  the  use  of  steam  engines,  and  animal 
power  has  to  be  employed.  The  year  past,  a  company  was 
formed  in  Baltimore,  and  adequate  capital  subscribed  for  pur- 
chasing and  working  some  valuable  mines  in  the  valley  of  Te- 
mascaltepec,  about  100  miles  from  Mexico.  They  have  been 
examined  by  several  persons  from  the  United  States,  who  give 
them  a  preference  over  those  purchased  by  the  British  compa- 
nies, on  account  of  the  water  power  which  can  be  applied  to 
work  the  various  machines.  They  have  engaged  their  ma- 

*  N.  A,  Review  for  Oct.  1825. 


STATE    OF    MEXICO. 

• 

chinery  at  West-Point,   which  is  to  be  finished  and  shipped 
from  New-York  in  April,  1826. 

During  the  colonial  system,  a  duty  of  eleven  and  a  half  per 
cent,  was  paid  on  the  products  of  the  mines,  which,  in  1 822 
was  reduced  to  three  per  cent.  Some  of  the  members  of  the 
present  Mexican  congress  doubted  the  expediency  of  this  mea- 
sure, thinking  that  the  duty  on  the  exportation  of  specie  should 
even  be  raised  higher  than  its  former  rate  to  prevent  the  coun- 
try being  drained  of  the  precious  metals.  This  occasioned  the 
appointment  of  a  committee  to  examine  into  this  important 
subject,  who  have  lately  submitted  to  the  congress  a  very  able 
report.  They  accord  in  their  views  with  those  of  the  secreta- 
ry, and  express  a  decided  opinion,  that  considered  in  reference 
either  to  the  revenue,  or  the  retention  of  the  precious  metals 
in  the  country,  that  to  raise  the  duty  on  the  exportation  of* 
gold  and  silver,  is  a  measure  highly  inexpedient.  To  prevent 
specie  from  having  a  free  circulation,  by  retaining  it  in  the 
country  with  heavy  duties,  would  have  the  effect  of  rendering 
it  less  valuable  in  Mexico  than  in  other  parts  of  the  world  ; 
this  would  not  only  prove  detrimental  to  working  the  mines, 
but  have  a  very  pernicious  influence  on  the  commerce  and 
manufactures  of  the  country.  Gold  and  silver  in  Mexico 
ought  only  to  be  regarded  as  the  products  of  a  valuable  and 
extensive  manufactory ;  consequently,  not  only  its  interest,  but 
that  of  the  country,  should  induce  the  government  to  open,  for 
the  products  of  this  manufactory,  the  market  of  the  world. 

The  just  and  enlightened  views  of  the  Mexican  Congress 
on  this  subject,  is  an  honourable  testimony  to  their  wisdom, 
and  affords  the  strongest  evidence  of  the  rapidly  increasing 
prosperity  of  the  nation.  Under  the  auspices  of  a  free  gov- 
ernment, possessing  such  sound  and  liberal  principles,  the 
mining  operations  in  Mexico,  will  in  a  few  years  become  as 
extensive  and  productive  as  at  the  most  favourable  periods 
during  the  colonial  government ;  and  at  no  distant  period,  the 
products  of  the  mines  will  undoubtedly  exceed  what  has  ever 
yet  been  realised.  Whilst  this  will  insure  the  prosperity  of 
Mexico,  it  will  promote  an  extensive  commerce  with  the  Uni 
ted  States.  The  revival  of  the  mining  operations  has  given  ac- 
ivity  to  the  districts  in  which  the  mines  are  situated,  and  re- 
stored, to  the  almost  desolated  towns,  a  part  of  that  popula- 
tion of  which  the  war,  and  the  suspension  of  the  mining  inter- 
ests, had  deprived  them.  At  the  celebrated  mine  of  Valenci- 
ania,  the  Anglo  Mexican  company  in  the  summer  of  1825,  were 
employing  fifteen  hundred  Indians,  and  the  number  was  con- 
stantly increasing.  The  shaft  was  drained  to  the  depth  of 
270  yards,  and  almost  1200  cargoes  of  ore,  300/65.  weight 

VOL.  f.  10 


110  HISTORY  AND    PRESENT 

each,  were  obtained  weekly,  The  city  of  Guanaxuato,  in  th& 
vicinity  of  this  mine,  containing,  previous  to  the  revolution, 
eighty  thousand  inhabitants,  had  been  reduced  to  fifteen,  or 
twenty  thousand :  but  its  population,  since  the  commence- 
ment of  the  present  mining  company,  has  doubled,  and  is  still 
rapidly  increasing.  The  mineral  treasures  of  Mexico,  are 
literally  inexhaustible,  and  the  powerful  impetus,  which  will 
be  given  to  industry  and  enterprise,  by  a  free  and  enlightened 
government,  a  free  ingress  of  foreigners,  and  freedom  of  com- 
merce, must  in  a  few  years  produce  astonishing  results  in  the 
mining  interests  of  Mexico.  The  career  of  prosperity  which 
is  opening  to  the  Mexican  nation  is  highly  gratifying  to  the 
citizens  of  the  United  States,  and  cannot  fail  of  having  an  im- 
portant and  beneficial  influence  on  our  commerce  and  manufac- 
tures. Mines  of  iron,  lead,  copper  and  quicksilver,  abound 
in  Mexico,  but  have  always  been  neglected,  so  that  iron  and 
quicksilver,  of  which  great  quantities  are  used  in  the  mines, 
have  been  imported.  During  the  late  war,  such  was  the  scar- 
city of  iron,  that  it  sold  for  forty  dollars  per  hundred,  and  steel 
as  high  as  two  hundred  and  sixty  dollars. 

Commerce. — The  commerce  of  Mexico  is  now.  free  to  all  na- 
tions, in  amity  with  the  republic.  The  external  commerce  is 
principally  carried  on  from  the  ports  of  Tampico,  Vera  Cruz, 
Alvarado,  and  Campeachy.  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ;  and  Aca- 
pulco  and  San  Bias,  on  the  Pacific.  The  foreign  commerce 
of  Mexico  is  carried  on  chiefly  in  foreign  vessels,  piincipally 
in  those  of  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain.  On  the  wes- 
tern coast,  in  addition  to  the  Manilla  commerce,  a  coasting 
trade  is  carried  on  with  Guatamala,  principally  from  San  Bias, 
and  a  small  trade  with  Guayaquil,  Lima,  and  Chile  ;  and  al- 
though the  ports  on  the  Pacific  coast  are  extremely  good,  the 
coasting  trade  is  inconsiderable. 

it  is  a  singular  fact,  which  is  strongly  demonstrative  of  the 
want  of  commercial  enterprize    among  the    Mexicans,   that 
whilst  the  British  and  the  citizens  of  the  United  States  traverse 
one   half  of  the  globe  to  pursue  a  profitable  whale  fishery,  in 
their  own  waters,  the  Mexicans  have  never  engaged  in  this 
pursuit.     The  Secretary  of  State  of  the  present  government, 
in  a  report  to  Congress,  in  Nov.  1823,  adverts  to  this  subject, 
and  suggests  the  propriety  of  granting  to  foreign  vessels,  fitte  " 
out  on  the  Mexican  coast,  the  same  privileges  as  are  grante 
to  native  citizens,  as  an  encouragement  to  the  trade.     Unde 
the  colonial  system,  the  contraband  trade  with  Mexico  wa 
extensive,  often  amounting,  even  in  time  of  peace,  to  on 
third  of  the  regular  commerce.     It  was  carried  on,  princip- 
ly,  with  the  ports  of  Campeachy  and  Vera  Cruz.     Early  in  f 


STATE    OF  MEXICO.  Ill 

nineteenth  century  the  importation  into  Mexico,  including  the 
contraband  trade,  was  to  the  amount  of  twenty  millions  of  dol- 
lars, and  the  exportations^exclusive  of  specie,  amounted  to 
six  millions.  The  mines  produced  about  twenty  three  mil- 
lions, which,  after  deducting  eight  or  nine  millions  on  the  ac- 
count of  the  government,  was  sufficient  to  liquidate  the  balance 
of  trade  and  leave  one  million  in  the  country. 

The  principal  articles  of  exportation  at  Vera  Cruz,  on  an 
average,  several  years  before  the  revolution,  were  as  fol- 
lows : — 

Gold  and  Silver  coined  and  wrought,       -  $17,000,000 
Cochineal,                                                          •       2,400,000 

Sugar,  1,300,000 

Flour  of  different  sorts,  -    300,000 

Indigo,  -    280,000 

Provisions,             .-  100,000 

Tanned  Leather,  -      80,000 

Sarsaparilla,         -  90,000 

Vanilla,             -                           -  -      60,000 

Jalap,  60,000 

Soap,  50,000 

Campeachy  Wood,  40,000 

Pimento  of  Tobasco,  30,000 

The  imports,  embraced  the  following  articles  : 

Paper,  (three   hundred  thousand  reams,)      $1,000,000 

Linens,   Cottons,  Woollens  and   Silks,  9,200,000 

Brandies,  1 ,000,000 

Cacoa,  -      1,000,000 

Quicksilver             -                          .  650,000 

Iron,                            -                            ,  .         600,000 

Steel,              -  .      200,000 

Wine,                                        .  .      700,000 

Wax,                                        .  .       300,000 

The  importations  of  Vera  Cruz,  estimated  at  15,000,000 

The  exportations  by  that  port,  estimated  at  22,000,000 

The  official  statement  of  the  Consulado  of 
Vera  Cruz,  made  the  exportations  of  1802, 
amount,  in  precious  metals  to  $48,800,000 

In  agricultural  products,  9,147,000 

Total     57,947,000 


112  HISTORY  AND  PRESENT 

The  importations  of  that  year  amounted  to  24,100,000 

In  1803,  the  exports,  were,  in  precious  metals,  15,554,000 

In  agricultural  products,                  £       -         -  5,368,000 


Total     20,922,000 
The  importations  amounted  to  22,975,000 

The  duties  on  merchandize,  imported  into  America  under 
the  colonial  system,  were  heavy  ;  and  consisted  of  nine  and 
a  half  per  cent,  on  what  was  called  free  effects,  or  articles  of 
the  produce  or  manufacture  of  Spain  ;  and  seven  per  cent,  on 
goods  and  produce  of  foreign  countries  on  its  landing  in  Amer- 
ica, having  first  paid  fifteen  per  cent,  in  Spain.  The  present 
government  established  a  tariff  of  twenty-five  per  cent,  on 
goods  imported,  and  the  minister  of  finance  in  his  report  to 
the  congress  in  1823,  complains  that  the  articles  of  merchan- 
dize are  not  correctly  classed,  and  also  proposes  to  reduce  the 
duty  on  imports  to  twenty-two  or  twenty-three  per  cent,  in- 
cluding the  consulate  "duty.  The  present  duty  is  on  the  esti- 
mated or  supposed  value,  and  often  amounts  to  eighty  per  cent, 
on  the  first  cost  of  the  article.  In  Mexico,  there  is  an  addi- 
tional duty  of  ten  and  a  half  per  cent,  on  goods  sent  to  that 
city  ;  in  other  towns  there  is  an  internal  duty,  which  is  not 
uniform  ;  in  some,  it  does  not  exceed  four  per  cent,  on  the 
amount  of  actual  sales.  The  expense  of  transportation  of 
goods,  from  Tampico  to  Mexico,  is  from  one  dollar  and  twen- 
ty-five cents,  to  two  dollars  and  fifty  cents  per  twenty-five 
pounds  ;  and  from  Vera  Cruz  to  Mexico,  from  one  to  two  dol- 
lars per  twenty-five  pounds.  A  mule  carries  from  three  to 
four  hundred  pounds,  according  to  the  state  of  the  roads. 

Next  to  the  enjoyment  of  liberty  and  free  institutions,  one 
of  the  most  important  advantages  which  Mexico  will  derive 
from  her  independence,  will  be  the  freedom  and  activity 
given  to  her  commerce,  which  will  greatly  promote  the  nation- 
al prosperity.  A  free  government,  free  press,  and  free  trade, 
cannot  fail  of  invigorating  every  department  of  national  indus- 
try. The  remarks  made  by  Humboldt,  when  the  enjoyment  of 
these  primary  advantages,  was  not  foreseen,  will  now  appear 
more  just  and  be  likely  soon  to  be  realized  :  "  But  by  allow- 
ing a  free  course  to  the  national  industry,  by  encouraging  ag- 
riculture and  manufactures,  the  importation  will  diminish  of 
itself,  and  it  will  then  be  easy  for  the  Mexicans  to  pay  the 
value  of  foreign  commodities  with  the  productions  of  their 
own  soil.  The  free  cultivation  of  the  vine  and  the  olive  on 
the  table-land  of  New  Spain  ;  the  free  distillation  of  spirits 
from  sugar,  rice,  and  the  grape  ;  the  exportation  of  flour,  fa- 


STATE  OF  MEXICO.  113 

voured  by  the  making  of  new  roads  ;  the  increase  of  planta- 
tions of  sugar-cane,  cotton,  and  tobacco  ;  the  working  of  the 
iron  and  mercury  mines ;  and  the  manufacture  of  steel,  will 
perhaps  one  day  become  more  inexhaustible  sources  of  wealth, 
than  all  the  veins  of  gold  and  silver  united.  Under  more  fa- 
vourable external  circumstances,  the  balance  of  trade  may  be 
favourable  to  New  Spain,  without  paying  the  account  which 
has  been  opened  for  centuries  between  the  two  continents  en- 
tirely with  Mexican  dollars." 

The  imports  that  are  best  adapted  to  the  Mexican  market, 
are  said  to  consist  of  European,  American,  and  Indian  cotton 
and  linen  goods  ;  French,  Spanish,  Italian,  Indian,  and  Canton 
silks ;  paper,  some  military  goods,  French  and  Spanish  wine 
and  brandy  ;  quicksilver,  cacoa,  and  cinnamon.  To  this  list, 
ships  may  be  added,  both  for  the  public  service  and  for  com- 
mercial purposes. 

In  addition  to  the  maritime  commerce,  a  very  valuable  and 
extensive  internal  trade  has  lately  been  opened  between  the 
citizens  of  the  western  borders  of  the  United  States,  anof 
those  of  the  internal  provinces  of  Mexico.  It  is  supposed 
that  this  trade  is  capable  of  great  extension,  and  that  it  might, 
hereafter,  become  a  source  of  great  profit  and  convenience  to 
the  inhabitants  of  both  countries.  In  tne  year  1825,  the  con- 
gress of  the  United  States  passed  an  act  authorising  the  sur 
vey  of  a  road  from  the  state  of  Missouri,  to  Mexico,  and  for 
treating  with  the  Indian  tribes  for  their  consent  to  have  the 
road  pass  through  their  country.  This  consent  has  been,  in 
some  cases,  obtained,  and  the  survey  partially  made  during 
the  past  year.  An  agent  of  the  Mexican  government  has  re- 
cently arrived  in  the  United  States,  to  promote  this  great  ob- 
ject, equally  important  to  both  countries.  No  propositions 
have  been  submitted  to  the  government  of  the  United  States 
by  this  agent,  nor  is  it  known  whether  the  Mexican  republic 
contemplates  continuing  the  road  from  the  line  of  the  United 
States.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  that  within  a  few  years  a 
road  will  be  opened  from  the  territories  of  tire  Union  into  the 
internal  provinces  of  Mexico,  and  that  this  will  strengthen  the 
bonds  of  friendship,  and  promote  an  extensive  inland  trade 
between  the  two  republics,  is  equally  certain.  This  trade,  at 
present,  consists  in  the  exchange  of  such  manufactured  arti- 
cles of  the  United  States,  as  are  adapted  to  the  comfort  and 
convenience  of  the  inhabitants  of  those  internal  regions,  for 
the  precious  metals  and  some  of  the  staple  productions  of  the 
country. 

Manufactures. — The  situation  of  the  towns  on  the  table- 
land of  Mexico,  so  far  removed  from  the  coast,  and  the  diffi- 

10* 


114  HISTORY    AND    PRESENT 

culty  of  transporting  merchandize  over  rugged  mountains, 
greatly  encourages  the  establishment  of  manufactories,  and 
even  renders  them  absolutely  necessary  to  the  comfort  of  the 
inhabitants  in  those  elevated  regions.  The  value  of  the  man- 
ufacturing industry  of  Mexico,  previous  to  the  revolution, 
was  estimated  at  from  seven  to  eight  millions  of  dollars  ;  but 
this,  with  every  other  branch  of  industry,  has  suffered  during 
the  struggles  of  that  protracted  contest.  The  intendancy  of 
Guadalaxara,  produces  cotton  and  wool  in  great  abundance, 
and  is  one  of  the  principal  seats  of  the  manufacture  of  cotton 
and  woollen  cloths.  This  branch  is  also  carried  on  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  in  Puebla  and  Queretaro.  The  manufacture 
of  powder,  was,  under  the  colonial  government,  a  royal  mo- 
nopoly ;  but  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  quantity  consumed  in 
the  country,  was  made  and  sold  in  a  contraband  mariner  ;  and 
this  manufacture  is  important,  and  must  increase,  as  the  con- 
sumption of  the  mines  is  very  great.  Hard  soap  is  manufac- 
tured in  Mexico,  Puebla,  and  Guadalaxara,  and  in  the  former 
city,  plate  is  a  most  important  manufacture.  Services  of  plate 
are  made  in  Mexico,  to  the  value  of  thirty-seven  thousand 
dollars,  and  which,  in  style  arid  elegance  of  workmanship, 
would  rival  the  finest  in  Europe.  The  coinage  of  money,  in 
the  mint  of  Mexico,  is  really  an  important  manufacturing  in- 
terest ;  and,  at  its  different  branches,  employs  four  hundred 
workmen.  It  was  established  in  1535,  and  in  1733,  was  plac- 
ed entirely  under  the  direction  of  the  government.  It  is  esti- 
mated by  Humboldt,  that,  since  its  establishment,  it  has  coined 
four  hundred  and  eight  million  pounds  sterling. 

The  most  profitable  manufacture  in  Mexico,  is  that  of  To- 
bacco, which  is  pursued  extensively  in  some  towns,  and  was 
formerly  a  royal  right ;  at  one  segar  manufactory  in  Queretaro, 
three  thousand  persons  are  employed,  and  the  establishment 
in  Mexico  employs  twice  that  number.  Hats,  shoes,  and  sad- 
dlery, are  important  branches  of  manufacture  in  the  city  of 
Mexico,  and  in  all  the  principal  towns ;  most  of  the  towns 
are  also  supplied  with  potteries  and  silver-smiths,  and  the  de- 
mand for  silver  plate  is  very  great,  both  for  the  use  of  churches 
and  families.  This  arises,  in  some  measure,  from  the  difficulty 
of  transporting  china  and  glass  ware  from  the  coast,  over  a 
mountainous  country,  with  rough  roads.  Cabinet  work,  of  in- 
ferior quality,  is  manufactured  from  cedar  and  pine  ;  coach- 
making  is  also  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent.  For  the 
want  of  streams,  the  mills  in  Mexico  are  for  the  most  part 
worked  by  animal  power,  and  are,  in  every  respect,  inferior  to 
the  flour  mills  of  the  United  States.  From  this  circumstance, 
the  manufacture  of  flour  can  never  be  carried  on  to  any  great 


STATE    OF    MEXICO.  115 

extent,  for  exportation,  if  wheat  should  be  ever  so  abundantly 
raised.  Mexico  is  plentifully  supplied  with  domestic  liquors^ 
called  pulque  and  vinomezcal,  which  are  produced  from  the 
maguey  plant,  extensively  cultivated  in  Mexico  for  this  pur- 
pose. The  pulque  is  the  sap  of  the  maguey,  and  is  obtained 
by  cutting  the  central  leaves  during  the  time  of  effloresence. 
One  hundred  and  fifty  bottles  of  juice  are  obtained  from  an 
ordinary  plant  in  one  season.  After  undergoing  fermentation, 
it  receives  an  agreeable  sour  taste,  resembling  cider.  But  its 
savour  is  fetid  like  putrid  meat,  and  very  offensive  to  those  not 
accustomed  to  its  use ;  the  consumption,  however,  is  very 
great,  and  even  foreigners,  in  a  short  time,  become  attached 
to,  and  prefer  it  to  any  other  drink.  The  vinomezcal  is  the 
brandy  of  the  maguey  ;  it  was  prohibited  during  the  colonial 
government  as  being  prejudicial  to  the  Spanish  brandy  trade. 
Glass  and  paper  manufactories  have  been  established  with 
great  success  at  San  Luis  Potosi  and  at  the  capital.  Cotton 
machinery  has  been  successfully  set  in  operation,  on  the 
same  place  of  that  used  in  the  United  States.* 

*  North  Am.  Review  for  October,  1825, 


116  HISTORY  AND  PRESENT 


CHAPTER  Vlt 

Intendancies. — Mexican  States. — Texas. — Principal  towns — - 
Mexico,  Guadalaxara,  Puebla,  Guanaxuato,  Zacatecas,  Qwe- 
retaro,  Oaxaca,  San  Luis  Potosi. — Roads  and  Canals.— Gov- 
ernment.— Religion. — Iturbide. — Military  and  Naval  resour- 
ces.— Finance  and  expenditure. — Population  and  character 
of  the  inhabitants. — Education,  and  institutions  of  learning. 

PREVIOUS  to  the  late  revolution,  the  Viceroyalty  of  Mexico 
was  divided  into  the  following  Intendancies  :  Mexico,  Puebla, 
Guanaxuato,  Valladolid,  Guadalaxara,  Zacatecas,  Oaxaca,  Me- 
ridia,  Vera  Cruz,  San  Luis  Potosi,  Durango,  La  Sonora,  New 
Mexico,  Old  California,  and  New  California.  Since  the  revo- 
lution, the  province  of  Chiapa,  which  formerly  belonged  to 
the  Captain-generalcy  of  Guatamala  has  been  attached  to 
the  Mexican  territory,  and  now  constitutes  one  of  the  states 
of  the  federation. 

The  Mexican  Union  now  comprises  sixteen  states,  which 
are  :  Chiapa,  Guanaxuato,  the  several  interior  western  provin- 
ces of  Sonoro,  Sinalsa,  and  the  two  Californias,  which  form 
one  state  ;  the  interior  northern  provinces,  of  Chihuahua, 
Durango,  and  New  Mexico  also  forming  one  state  ;  the  inte- 
rior Eastern  provinces  of  Coahuila,  New  Leon,  the  Texas  and 
New  Santander,  constituting  one  state  ;  Mexico,  Mechoacan, 
Oaxaca,  Puebla  and  Tlascala  forming  one  state  ;  Queretaro, 
San  Luis  Potosi,  Tabasco,  Vera  Cruz,  Xahsco,  Yucatan  and 
Zacatecas.  These  were  the  names  at  the  adoption  of  the 
constitution,  since  which,  the  interior  of  the  East  is  called 
Talrnanlipas,  and  the  interior  of  the  north,  Chihuehue  ;  wheth- 
er these  two  new  States  comprise  the  same  extent  of  territo- 
ry that  was  included  in  the  interior  of  the  east,  and  the  inte- 
rior of  the  north,  we  have  no  means  of  determining.  Most  of 
the  territory  comprised  within  the  limits  >f  tlu  ' 'Ove-mention- 
ed  states,  consists  of  the  table-lands  and  the  maritime  borders, 
with  -ihe  exception  of  the  province  of  Texas,  and  that  part  of 
the  interior  of  the  west  which  is  situated  beyond  the  Colorado 
of  the  Gulf  of  California,  Those  two  extensive  districts  of 


STATE   OF  MEXICO.  117 

the  Mexican  territory  differ  so  much  in  their  general  geograph- 
ical character  from  the  table-land  of  Mexico,  that  they  demand 
a  separate  and  particular  description. 

The  province  of  Texas  comprises  that  vast  extent  of  coun- 
try between  the  Rio  del  Norte  and  the  western  boundary  of 
the  United  States.  This  extensive  region  was  claimed  by  the 
United  tates  as  part  of  Louisiana,  but  this  claim  was  relin- 
quished to  Spain  by  the  Florida  Treaty.  According  to  a 
computation,  which  some  have  made,  this  vast  territory  com- 
prises an  area  of  two  hundred  and  forty  thousand  square  miles  ; 
and  it  embraces  an  extensive  maritime  border,  and  is  well 
watered  by  a  number  of  large  and  valuable  rivers,  the  princi- 
pal of  which  are  the  Colorado,  the  Brasses,  and  the  Red  Riv- 
er, which  forms  part  of  its  eastern  boundary.  It  possesses  an 
excellent  climate,  and  a  soil  equal  to  any  part  of  western 
America.  The  policy  of  relinquishing  our  claim,  which  many 
competent  judges  considered  well  founded,  to  a  country  of 
such  great  extent  and  fertility,  so  favourably  located  for  settle- 
ment ;  a  country  capable  of  supporting  millions  of  republican 
citizens  in  affluence,  and  which  can  be  of  no  great  value  to  any 
other  nation,  as  from  its  situation,  if  it  is  ever  settled,  its  pop- 
ulation must  come  chiefly  from  the  United  States,  was  justly 
questioned  by  many  enlightened  and  patriotic  citizens  at  the 
time  of  the  ratification  of  the  Florida  Treaty  ;  nor  have  the 
subsequent  events  in  Mexico,  or  our  own  experience,  remov- 
ed the  doubts,  or  proved  the  wisdom  of  the  measure.  This 
territory  is  now  receiving  some  few  settlers  from  the  United 
States,  but  were  it  annexed  to  our  confederacy,  it  would  soon 
be  divided  into  two  or  three  states,  and  filled  with  an  enterpri- 
sing and  industrious  population. 

The  country  beyond  the  Colorado  of  the  west,  which  be- 
longs to  the  Mexican  Republic,  is  likewise  of  great  extent  and 
fertility,  enjoying  a  fine  climate,  equal  to  the  countries  on  the 
borders  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  Europe  ;  it  is  probably  des- 
tined, at  no  distant  period,  to  be  adorned  with  beautiful  villa- 
ges and  magnificent  cities,  surrounded  with  highly  cultivated 
and  fertile  fields,  the  abodes  of  an  enlightened,  industrious  and 
enterprising  population. 

*  Principal  Towns. — The  city  of  Mexico,  the  capital  of  the 
federation,  is  situated  in  the  great  valley  of  the  same  name, 
in  lat.  19  deg.  25  min.  45  sec.  The  centre  of  the  city  is  near- 
ly three  miles  west  of  the  salt  lake  Tezeuco.  The  extent  of 
the  town  is  computed  to  be  a  square  of  between  four  and  five 
miles.  The  site  is  almost  an  uniform  level.  '  The  city  is  built 
on  piles,  is  very  compact,  and  surrounded  with  a  wall.  The 
streets  are  sufficiently  wide,  and  run  nearly  north  and  south » 


118  HISTORY    AND    PRESENT 

and  east  and  west,  intersecting  each  other  at  right  angles  ; 
they  are  well  paved,  and  have  flagged  walks,  formed  of  flat 
stone.  The  publifc  squares  are  spacious,  and  surrounded  by 
buildings  of  hewn  stone,  and  of  very  good  architecture.  The 
public  edifices  and  churches  are  vast  and  splendid,  and  the 
private  buildings  are  generally  built  of  solid  materials,  and 
have  a  magnificent  appearance,  being  usually  three  or  four 
stories  high,  with  flat  terrace  roofs,  and  many  of  them  orna- 
mented with  iron  balconies.  The  public  buildings  are  nu- 
merous, and  there  is  said  to  be  not  less  than  one  hundred  and 
five  cupolas,  spires  and  domes,  within  the  limits  of  the  city. 
There  are  fifty-six  churches,  besides  the  cathedral,  which  is  a 
stately  stone  edifice,  occupying  one  side  of  the  great  square, 
and  stands  on  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  Mexican  temple.  It  has 
a  front  of  five  hundred  feet  by  four  hundred  and  twenty.  From 
the  towers  of  the  cathedral,  the  whole  basin  of  Mexico  may 
be  seen,  surrounded  by  hills  and  mountains  ;  the  lakes  and  the 
rich  meadows  that  border  on  them,  the  churches  and  spires  of 
the  neighboring  villages,  the  cultivated  fields,  fine  gardens, 
and  nearly  lost  in  the  distance  the  snowy  summits  of  the  volca- 
nic mountains  of  Puebla,  afford  one  of  the  most  delightful,  va- 
riegated and  grand  prospects  in  the  world.  In  addition  to  the 
cathedral,  many  of  the  churches  are  neat  and  handsome  build- 
ings, and  splendidly  ornamented  ;  many  of  them  are  attached 
to  convents,  which  are  very  numerous,  amounting,  it  is  said, 
to  no  less  than  twenty-three  monasteries  and  fifteen  nunneries. 
The  other  public  buildings  and  institutions,  consist  of  the  vice- 
royal  palace,  situated  on  the  principal  square,  is  built  on  the 
spot  occupied  by  Cortes,  after  the  conquest  of  the  city,  direct- 
ly opposite  the  palace  of  Montazuma.  It  is  a  building  of  great 
extent,  and  is  composed  of  a  number  of  squares  and  inner 
courts,  with  separate  staircases  and  suits  of  apartments.  There 
is  a  botannic  garden  attached  to  this  building. 

The  mint  is  a  spacious  stone  edifice,  three  hundred  and  sixty 
feet  in  front,  by  two  hundred  and  sixty  deep ;  there  are  not 
less  than  thirty  persons  employed  in  the  offices  of  the  different 
branches  ;  there  are  fifteen  engravers,  five  essayers,  and  two 
hundred  labourers,  and  about  one  hundred  mules  in  the  stables. 
There  is  a  university  ajjid  a  mineria,  or  school  of  mines  ;  th% 
former  is  accommodated  with  a  spacious  building,  and  is  a 
well  endowed  institution,  and  founded  as  early  as  1551.  The 
mineria  is  provided  with  a  building  in  which  there  is  a  collec- 
tion of  minerals  and  a  good  philosophical  apparatus.  This  in- 
stitution was  designed  to  educate  young  men,  and  qualify 
them  to  become  useful  superintendants  of  mines.  There  is 
also  in  Mexico  an  academy  of  the  fine  arts  ;  several  inferior 


STATE    OF    MEXICO.  119 

colleges  and  large  schools,  and  many  valuable  private  libraries. 
The  principal  manufactory  in  Mexico  is  the  one  for  making 
segars,  in  which  five  or  six  thousand  persons  are  employed  at 
this  branch  of  business,  and  a  large  building  is  occupied,  near 
the  suburbs  of  the  city.  The  market  place  of  Mexico  is  well 
supplied  with  meats,  fruits,  and  vegetables  of  both  the  tropical 
and  temperate  climates,  at  a  moderate  price  ;  fish  only  are 
dear  and  scarce. 

The  city  of  Mexico  is  abundantly  supplied  with  water,  from 
two  great  acqueducts,  the  longest  of  which  brings  the  water 
from  the  springs  of  Santa  Fe,  near  the  chain  of  mountains  that 
separates  the  valley  of  Mexico  from  that  of  Lerma.  This 
aqueduct  is  thirty-three  thousand  four  hundred  sixty-four  feet 
in  length,  supported  on  arches  of  stone  and  brick,  plastered 
over.  The  other  aqueduct  conducts  the  water  from  C  hapol- 
tepec  to  the  city,  and  is  ten  thousand  eight  hundred  sixty  feet 
in  length.  There  is  a  spacious  public  walk  in  Mexico,  called 
the  Alarneda,  which  is  planted  with  rows  of  trees  with  a  foun- 
tain in  the  centre,  supplied  with  water  from  one  of  the  great 
aqueducts  ;  the  capital  is  also  accommodated  with  a  well 
regulated  theatre.  Mexico  communicates  with  the  lakes 
Chalco  and  Xochimilco,  by  a  canal  ;  and  there  are  five 
great  causeways,  or  avenues,  leading  to  the  city,  which 
are  lined  with  rows  of  large  trees.  The  country  around 
Mexico,  abounds  with  small  towns,  and  well  built  villages,  in- 
terspersed with  fertile  fields,  gardens  and  orchards.  A  great 
part  of  the  land  that  intervenes  between  the  two  lakes,  Tez- 
cuco  and  Chalco,  is  surrounded  by  ditches,  laid  out  into 
gardens  and  cultivated  by  the  Indians,  and  on  which  are 
raised  a  great  quantity  of  vegetables  and  flowers,  suited  to 
the  Mexican  market.  The  floating  gardens,  so  often  descri- 
bed, have  been  discontinued  since  the  construction  of  the  ca- 
nal Huehuetoca,  which  drains  the  valley  and  prevents  inunda- 
tions. The  population  of  Mexico  was  estimated  in  1801,  to 
be  137,000  ;  of  which  67,500  are  whites,  and  69,500  were 
people  of  colour  ;  the  population  is  now  estimated  at  between 
150  and  160,000.  The  distance  from  Mexico  to  Vera  Cruz, 
is  207  miles  ;  to  Acapulco,  198  miles  ;  to  Oaxaca,  237  miles  ; 
to  Santa  Fe,  in  New  Mexico,  1,320  miles.  The  city  was 
founded  in  1325,  according  to  Humboldt. 

Guadalaxara,  is  now  considered  the  second  city  in  the 
Mexican  Republic.  It  is  situated  in  lat.  21.  9,  north,  450 
miles  north-west  of  the  City  of  Mexico,  on  a  delightful  and 
fertile  plain,  near  the  Bararya  river.  Its  present  population  is 
estimated  at  70,000. 

Of  the  other  considerable  cities  is  Puebla,  situated  in  iaL  19 


120  HISTORY  AND  PRESENT 

N.  at  an  elevation  of  7,308  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea  ;  ou 
the  south  side  of  a  hill,  covered  with  wood  to  its  summit. 
The  plain  that  surrounds  the  town,  is  well  cultivated,  and 
highly  productive  in  grains  and  fruits.  This  plain  is  bounded 
by  a  chain  of  hills  presenting  alternately,  cultivated  fields,  and 
luxuriant  forests  ;  and  the  view  is  terminated  by  the  volcanoes 
of  Puebla,  clothed  in  eternal  snows.  The  city  is  compactly 
built  and  the  houses  are  all  of  stone,  large  and  commodious. 
The  public  buildings  consist  of  a  cathedral,  a  town-house,  and 
numerous  churches,  and  convents,  it  being  said,  that  there  are 
more  than  one  hundred  spires  and  domes  in  the  city.  The 
population  is  stated  to  be  60,000.  The  Popocatepetl,  the 
loftiest  mountain  in  North  America,  is  not  far  from  this  city, 
the  height  of  which  is  17, 760  feet  above  the  ocean.  Puebla 
lies  90  miles  east  by  south  of  the  city  of  Mexico. 

Guanaxuato,  is  situated  among  the  ravines  of  the  moun- 
tains, about  1 80  miles  northwest  of  Mexico,  was  founded  in 
1554,  is  well  built,  with  spacious  houses  of  hewn  stone,  but 
the  streets  are  narrow  and  crooked.  The  population  of1 
the  city  and  the  neighbouring  mines  is  computed  to  be  35,733. 
The  inhabitants  of  Guanaxuato,  are  represented  to  be  very 
intelligent,  hospitable,  and  industrious.  This  town  is  celebra- 
ted for  the  rich  mines  in  its  vicinity,  which  are  undoubtedly 
the  most  productive  of  any  in  North  America.  The  extent 
of  this  rich  vein  of  ore,  is  more  than  fifteen  miles,  in  a  direc- 
tion from  southeast  to  northwest  ;  and,  within  this  distance, 
there  are  upwards  of  one  hundred  shafts  opened.  These 
mines  formerly  supplied  with  ore,  and  kept  at  work,  two  thou- 
sand amalgamating-mills,  and  have  produced  silver  to  the 
amount  of  seven  millions  seven  hundred  and  twenty-seven 
thousand  five  hundred  dollars,  annually.  The  most  produc- 
tive of  these  mines,  was  that  of  Valenciana,  which  raised  a 
town  about  it  of  22,000  inhabitants  ;  now,  however,  reduced 
to  4,000,  in  consequence  of  the  vast  excavation  of  the  mines 
being  filled  with  water. 

Zacatecas,  situated  in  a  mining  district,  300  miles  north  by 
northwest   of  Mexico,  contains,  according  to  Humboldt,  33, 
000  inhabitants.     Queretaro,  is  a  large  and  well  built  manu- 
facturing town,  situated  in  a  feriile  valley,  near  the  rich  tract 
of  country  called  Baxio,  with  a  population  of  30,000  inhabi- 
tants.    Oaxaca,  lies  near  the  east   bank   of  Rio  Verd,    237 
\miles  south  by  southeast  of  Mexico,  and  contains   24,000   in- 
tabitants.     San  Luis  Potosi,  a  neat  well  built  town   on   the 
.ead  of  the  Rio  Panco,  contains  about  15,000   inhabitants, 
mong  the  remaining  interior  towns,  are  Yalladolid,  contain- 
18,000  inhabitants  j  Durango,  situated  in  a  mining  district, 


STATE  OF   MEXICO.  121 

at  the  elevation  of  six  thousand  five  hundred  and  sixty  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  is  the  capital  of  a  province   of  the 
same  name,  and  contains  a  population  of  12,000  inhabitants. 
Chihuahua,  the  capital  of  the  Province  of  Chihuahua,  a 
large  city,  is  represented  by  late  travellers  to  contain  30,000 
inhabitants,   and   to  be  about  400  miles   north  of  Durango. 
Santa  Fe,  is  situated  in  lat.  36.  30.  north,  on  the  east  bank  of 
the  Rio  del  Norte,  about  1,000  miles  northwest  of  the  City  of 
Mexico,  with  a  population  of  9,000,  according  to  late  travel- 
lers.    The  chief  town  in  Yucatan,  is  Merida,  with  a  popula- 
tion of  10,000.     Tepee,  a  large  and  beautiful  town,  is  situated 
a  few  miles  from  San  Bias,  a  seaport  on   the  Pacific.     Vera 
Cruz  is  a  seaport,  lying  on  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  in  lat.  19  deg. 
12  m.  N.  is  built  on  an  arid  plain,  and  is  destitute  of  running 
water  ;  but  is  a  handsome,  regular  built  city,  and  contains  a 
population  of  about  16,000  inhabitants.     The  fortress  of  San 
Juan  de  Uloa,  is  on  an  island  near  the  town.     The  maritime 
custom-house   6f   Vera  Cruz,  was  established  in  1530.    Ve- 
ra Cruz  has  rather  a  bad  anchorage,  than  a  harbour  ;   and 
all  the  eastern  coast  is  exposed   to  hurricanes  during  the 
winter. 

Acapulco,  is  on  the  Pacific,  in  lat.  16  deg  50  m.  north  ;  its 
harbour  is  one  of  the  best  on  the  Pacific  coast,  but  the  situa- 
tion is  very  unhealthy,  and  the  population  is  much  reduced 
from  what  it  formerly  was.  The  town  is  protected  by  an  ex- 
tensive and  formidable  fortress,  called  the  Castle  of  San  Car- 
los. A  maritime  custom-house  was  established  at  Acapulco,  as 
early  as  1562.  In  addition  to  the  two  seaports  which  we  have 
mentioned,  it  appears  by  recent  information  that  there  are  nine 
other  places,  on  both  oceans,  invested  with  port  privileges, 
Alvarado,  Campeachy,  Tampico,  Altamira,  Solto  La  Marina, 
and  Refugio,  on  the  Atlantic  coast ;  and  Mazatlan,  Guaimas, 
and  San  Bias  on  the  Pacific. 

Roads  and  Canals. — The  Roads  in  Mexico   are   deficient, 
and  very  bad*     There  are  three  principal  roads — that  of  Vera 
Cruz,  of  Acapulco,  and  of  the  interior.     The  superb  road,  or 
causeway  undertaken  by  the  consulado  of  Vera   Cruz   was 
finished  in  all  the  difficult  passes  of  the  mountains,  from  that 
place  to  Perote,  and  from  Puebla  to  the  capital  ;  the  interme- 
diate distance  between  Puebla   and  Perote,   being  tolerably 
good.     This  road  was  not  only  neglected  in  consequence  of 
the  war,  but  many  of  the  bridges  were  broken  down,  and  the 
pavement  taken  up,  to  prevent  the  march  of  armies  ;  and  the 
torrents  from  the  mountains  have  washed  the  road  into  gullies. 
These  injuries  have  been  partially  repaired,  and  money  raised 
Voa.I.  11 


122  HISTGRY   AND    PRESENT 

to  complete  the  road  over  the  Final,  the  most  difficult  part  of 
the  rout  from  Perote  to  Puebla. 

The  important  road  from  the  capital  to  Acapulco,  is  in  a 
state  of  ruins,  having  received  no  repairs  since  the  commence-^ 
ment  of  the  revolutionary  war.  In  many  places  it  is  im- 
passible, even  for  mules  ;  deep  and  rapid  rivers  are  to  be 
forded  for  the  want  of  bridges,  when  fatal  accidents  often 
happen  to  travellers  and  mules.  The  government,  sensible  of 
the  importance  of  this  road,  have  adopted  measures  for  re- 
pairing it  ;  but  it  is  expected,  at  a  future  time,  to  give  it  a  more 
commodious  direction. 

The  famous  canal  of  Huehuetoca,  is  the  only  one  in  Mexi- 
co. It  was  designed,  to  afford  an  outlet  to  the  waters  of  the 
river  Guantitlan,  to  prevent  their  flowing  into  the  lake  Zurn- 
pango,  which  discharged  its  waters  into  lake  Christobal,  and 
the  latter  into  Tezcuco,  which  inundated  the  capital.  Subse- 
quently a  canal  has  been  partially  opened  to  convey  the  waters 
of  the  Zumpango,  to  the  great  canal  of  Huehuetoca,  and  anoth- 
er to  convey  the  waters  of  lakes  Tezcuco  and  Christobal  to  the 
same  canal  ;  but  to  effect  this  object  it  is  necessary  that  the 
great  drain  of  Huehuetoca  should  be  deepened  so  as  to  re- 
duce its  level  to  that  of  the  lake  Tezcuco. 

Since  1814,  the  Cortes  of  Spain,  decreed  the  opening  a  ca- 
nal by  means  of  the  rivers  Guasacualco  and  Chimalapa,  to 
connect  the  waters  of  the  two  great  oceans,  which  would  give 
a  new  direction  to  the  commerce  of  a  large  portion  of  the 
world.  They  charged  the  execution  of  this  great  enterprize 
to  the  Consulado  of  Guadalaxara ;  and  afterwards  believing 
that  that  corporation  could  not  accomplish  this  great  work,  it 
was  proposed  to  invite  foreigners  to  invest  their  capital  in  it. 
And  since  the  establishment  of  the  present  government  in 
Mexico,  proposals  have  been  made  by  foreign  houses,  to  exe- 
cute this  vast  work,  which  have  been  submitted  to  the  con- 
gress. As  the  government  is  disposed  to  favour  this  object, 
there  are  grounds  to  believe  that  this  great  enterprize,  calcu- 
lated to  work  a  greater  revolution  in  commerce  than  was 
immediately  occasioned  by  the  discovery  of  America,  will 
be  commenced  under  circumstances  which  will  insure  it  suc- 
cess.* 

Government. — The  Spanish  colonial  system,  was  in  its  theory 
or  principles,  a  most  absolute  and  despotic  government,  and 
rendered  more  oppressive  by  the  corruptions  and  abuses  of 
power,  which  had  been  introduced  into  every  department  of 
the  administration.  Some  account  of  this  system  is  given 

*  Report  of  Mexican  Secretary  of  State,,  in  1823. 


STATE    OF  MEXICO.  123' 

in  the  sketch  of  the  history  of  Spanish  America,  previous  to 
the  revolution,  which  we  will  not  repeat  here.  The  colonists 
were  deprived  of  all  political  rights,  scarcely  excepting  what 
was  strictly  municipal  ;  they  were  denied  all  the  advatages  of 
commerce  and  manufactures,  and  even  agriculture  was  sub- 
jected to  discouraging  and  onerous  restrictions.  The  colon- 
ial system  was  founded  on  the  principle,  that  the  colonies  were 
in  a  state  of  minority  and  tutelage,  and  were  to  be  governed 
not  for  their  own  benefit,  but  for  the  advantage  of  their  parent, 
who  without  regard  for  the  future  well-being  of  his  offspring, 
in  the  exercise  of  parental  authority,  thought  only  of  render- 
ing it  most  conducive  to  his  own  immediate  interest.  Among 
the  abuses  of  the  system  was  the  practice  which  had  long  pre- 
vailed of  conferring  all  offices  on  European  Spaniards,  to  the 
entire  exclusion  of  the  Creoles  or  Americans,  notwithstand- 
ing it  was  declared,  in  the  original  compact  between  the  king 
and  the  first  settlers,  that  after  the  first  discoverers  and  con- 
queppelrs,  the  settlers,  and  those  born  in  the  provinces,  were  to 
be  preferred  in  all  appointments  and  public  employments.*' 
This  practice  seems  to  have  resulted  from  the  consideration 
that  the  colonies  were  not  governed  for  their  own  advantage, 
but  for  the  benefit  of  the  parent  state.  But  whatever  may 
have  been  the  cause  of  this  unjust  and  impolitic  practice,  it 
was  the  fertile  source  of  the  division  of  the  white  population 
into  two  parti.es :  the  natives  of  Spain  and  those  born  in  A- 
merica,  and  of  the  long-established  and  inveterate  animosities, 
which  existed  between  them.  All  the  officers  of  government 
being  sent  from  Spain,  the  inhabitants  could  view  them  in  no 
other  light  than  as  their  oppressors,  and  as  having  been  im- 
ported for  that  express  purpose.  The  possession  of  power 
and  the  favour  of  the  government,  rendered  the  Europeans 
haughty  and  insolent,  as  is  always  the  case  with  a  privileged 
class,  and  this  tended  still  more  to  exasperate  the  feelings 
of  the  Creoles.  And.  hence  the  long,  bitter,  and  sanguinary 
wars  of  the  late  revolution. 

If  there  ever  was  a  people  in  a  state  of  political  bondage,  of 
oppressive  and  degrading  servitude,  it  was  the  Spanish  colo- 
nies. Fortunately  for  them,  for  the  cause  of  liberty,  and  the 
honour  of  America,  circumstances  favoured  their  emancipa- 
tion, and  they  are  now  free.  The  struggle  has  been  long,  ar- 
duous and  bloody,  characterized  by  a  spirit  of  bitterness  and 
animosity,  which  spread  desolation  over  the  fairest  portions  of 
America,  and  in  some  districts  almost  swept  away  the  entire 
population.  The  independence  and  liberty  of  Spanish  Amer- 

*  Laws  of  the  Indies. 


124  HISTORY    AND    PRESENT 

ica,  has  been  dearly  purchased  ;  it  has  been  bought  with  the 
best  blood  of  the  country,  and  this  has  flowed  freely.  In  Mex- 
ico, after  a  destructive  war  for  twelve  years,  the  royal  govern- 
ment was  finally  overthrown.  But  this  only  established  a  new 
and  ephemeral  tyranny,  in  the  person  of  Iturbide,  who  had 
been  the  instrument  of  crushing  the  Spanish  despotism. — 
Whilst  he  was  at  the  head  of  affairs,  the  government  acquired 
no  stability,  and  only  presented  a  constant  struggle  for  power 
on  his  part,  and  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  congress.  Aided 
by  numerous  partizans,  and  having  the  army  at  his  command, 
he  finally  succeeded,  and  established  himself  a  despotic  ruler. 
But  his  reign  was  as  short  as  it  was  inglorious.  The  people 
were  not  satisfied  with  a  change  of  masters  :  they  wished  for 
freedom  and  the  right  of  self-government,  and  had  they  failed 
in  this,  the  vast  sacrifices  of  the  revolution  would  have  been 
lost.  The  capricious  tyranny  of  Iturbide  soon  occasioned  gen- 
eral disaffection  ;  and  being  disgusted  with  the  retrograde 
movement  in  the  revolution,  the  people  resolved  that  it  should 
go  forward  to  its  consummation.  Iturbide  was  overthrown, 
the  old  congress  was  convened,  and  soon  a  new  congress  was 
elected,  composed  exclusively  of  the  friends,  not  only  of  the 
independence  of  Mexico,  but  of  a  republican  government — of 
a  government  of  the  people. 

Soon  after  the  congress  was  convened  in  November,  1823, 
a  committee  was  appointed  to  prepare  a  constitution,  and  on  ^ 
the  19th  of  the  same  month,  they  reported  a  "constitutive  act 
of  the  Mexican  Nation,"  which,  after  undergoing  some  slight  al- 
teration, was  adopted  in  February  following.  This  act  contains 
the  principles  of  the  government  of  the  Mexican  Nation ;  but 
seems  to  suppose  that  these  principles  are  to  be  promulgated 
in  a  different  form.  The  government  thus  established,  is  a 
Confederative  Republic,  and  not  only  in  its  general  outline, 
but  in  its  subordinate  divisions  of  power  and  minute  features, 
has  a  striking  similarity  to  the  constitution  of  the  United 
States.  The  most  essential  difference  in  principle  between 
f  he  Mexican  constitution,  and  that  of  the  United  States,  is  in 
the  third  article,  which  establishes  the  Catholic  Roman  Apos- 
tolic Religion,  and  declares  that  the  nation  will  protect  it  by 
wise  and  just  laws,  and  prohibits  the  exercise  of  any  other. 
This  is  very  different  from  our  constitution,  which  declares 
that  "  congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment 
of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof,"  and  cer- 
tainly inconsistent  with  the  liberal  and  enlightened  principles 
of  the  constitution  in  which  it  is  imbodied.  It  is  supposed, 
however,  that  the  condition  of  the  population,  and  the  influ- 
ence of  the  clergy,  was  such  in  Mexico, -as  not  to  admit  of  a 


STATE    OF    MEXICO*  125 

more  liberal  provision  on  the  subject  of  religion.  There  is 
one  other  particular  in  which  the  constitution  differs  from  that 
of  the  United  States,  which  we  will  notice.  The  congress  is 
authorised,  in  times  of  national  danger,  to  create  a  dictator, 
for  a  limited  time,  or  in  other  words,  "  to  grant  extraordinary 
powers  to  the  executive,  for  a  limited  time,  upon  a  full  know- 
ledge of  the  cause."*  There  is,  probably,  no  actual  danger 
in  this  provision ;  yet  at  the  same  time  it  may  be  safely  assert- 
ed, that  no  such  principle  would  be  sanctioned  by  the  people 
of  the  United  States. 

Since  the  establishment  of  the  present  system,  the  govern- 
ment has  been  organised,  has  acquired  stability,  and  been 
gradually  completing  the  great  objects  and  reforms  of  the  rev- 
olution, and  repairing,  as  fast  as  time  and  the  condition  of  the 
country  would  admit,  the  dreadful  evils  of  the  revolutionary 
struggle.  The  system,  like  the  United  States,  comprises  a 
general  or  national  government  and  separate  state  govern- 
ments ;  and  the  latter  have  generally  been  organised  since  its 
adoption.  It  does  not  appear,  from  the  constitutive  act, 
whether  the  senators  of  the  general  congress  are  to  be  chosen 
by  the  legislatures  of  the  states  or  by  the  citizens  ;  but  the 
number  is  fixed  at  two  from  each  state,  and  it  is  presumable 
that  they  are  to  be  chosen  by  the  states  in  their  corporative 
rapacity. 

Military  and  Naval  Resources. — In  1822  the  military  force 
consisted  of  ten  thousand  seven  hundred  sixty-four  troops  of 
the  line,  and  thirty  thousand  militia :  the  militia  has  been 
greatly  increased  and  has  undergone  a  new  organization  since 
the  establishment  of  the  republican  government,  and  is  now 
supposed  to  be  very  numerous.  The  army  has  likewise  been 
increased,  and  placed  on  a  better  footing.  The  estimated  ex- 
pense of  the  war  department  for  1825,  to  sustain  the  army  on 
the  footing  ordained  by  congress,  was  twelve  millions  of  dol- 
lars. 

The  attention  of  the  present  Mexican  government,  was  ear- 
ly directed  to  the  establishment  of  a  Navy,  and  a  considerable 
naval  force  has  by  its  efforts,  already  been  acquired.  The  ex- 
penses of  the  naval  department  were  officially  estimated  for 
1825,  at  three  millions  of  dollars.  In  June  of  that  year,  the 
Spanish  ships  of  war,  the  Asia  of  seventy-four  guns,  and  the 
brig  Constante,  which  sailed  from  Callao,  entered  the  port  of 
Acapulco,  arid  voluntarily  surrendered  themselves  to  the  Mex- 
ican government.  The  Asia  has  since  been  conducted  round 
to  the  Atlantic  side.  One  seventy-four.,  and  several  frig- 

*  Art.  13.  Constitutional  Act. 


126  HISTORY    AND    PRESENT 

ates  and  ships  of  war  arrived  at  Mexico  from  England  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  year  1821,  and  several  vessels  for  their  service 
have  been  built  in  the  United  States,  so  that  at  this  time, 
the  Mexican  Navy  has  become  fully  adequate  to  meet  any  na- 
val force,  Spain  can  send  into  the  American  Seas.  It  is  sta- 
ted as  a  fact,  that  the  Mexican  government  offered  the  com* 
mand  of  their  Navy  to  our  distinguished  naval  officer,  Com- 
modore Porter. 

The  naval  forces  of  Mexico  and  Colombia  are  concentra- 
ting at  Carthagenia,  and  it  is  supposed  that  an  expedition  of 
their  united  forces  will  be  sent  against  Cuba,  or  some  other  of 
the  Spanish  dominions. 

finances  and  Expenditure. — Previous  to  the  revolution,  the 
revenue  of  New  Spain,  from  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  amounted  to  about  twenty  millions  of  dollars  ;  of 
which  five  and  a  half  millions,  arose  from  the  duties  on  the 
produce  of  the  mines ;  four,  from  the  government  monopoly 
of  tobacco ;  three  from  the  customs  and  alcabalas  ;  one  mill- 
ion and  a  half  from  the  tribute  or  capitation  tax,  paid  by  the 
Indians  ;  and  the  remainder  from  an  excise  on  the  domestic 
liquor  called  pulque,  the  sale  of  powder,  stamps,  cards  and 
papal  indulgencies ;  from  the  post  office,  the  farming  of  cock- 
fighting,  and  some  other  small  sources  of  revenue.  At  least 
one  fourth  of  this  large  revenue  was  expended  in  the  military 
establishment  for  the  defence  of  the  country,  which  consisted 
of  ten  thousand  regular  troops,  and  twenty  thousand  provin- 
cial militia.  Of  the  regulars,  four  thousand  were  cavalry  -r 
who  together  with  the  infantry  were  stationed  at  the  military 
posts  to  check  the  incursions  of  the  Indians,  and  for  some 
years  before  the  revolution  to  keep  down  the  spirit  of  the  peo- 
ple. The  geographical  features  of  the  country  are  such  as  to 
render  it  easily  defensible  against  an  external  enemy.  That 
part  of  the  establishment  which  consisted  of  the  militia  was 
little  more  than  nominal. 

The  revolutionary  struggle  not  only  greatly  increased  the 
expenditure,  but  greatly  impaired  the  revenue  and  destroyed 
public  credit.  Whilst  Iturbide  was  at  the  head  of  the  gov- 
ernment the  treasury  was  exhausted,  and  he  was  constantly 
harrassing  the  congress  to  provide  ways  and  means  to  pay  the 
army,  and  relieve  the  exigencies  of  the  treasury  ;  and  when 
the  present  government  was  established,  it  found  the  treasury 
empty  and  the  revenue  in  the  most  deplorable  condition.  Ac- 
cording to  the  report  of  the  financial  minister  in  March  1823, 
the  only  resource  of  the  treasury  was  the  sale  of  three  hun- 
dred thousand  dollars  worth  of  tobacco,  to  satisfy  the  nurner- 
OHIS  demands  against  the  government.  The  present  adminis- 


STATE    OF    MEXICO.  127 

tration,  at  the  head  of  which  is  the  distinguished  patriot  Gua- 
deloupe Victoria,  are  making  the  most  noble  and  patriotic  ex* 
ertions  to  retrieve  the  condition  of  the  revenue,  by  introducing 
a.  most  rigid  system  of  economy  on  the  one  hand,  and  by  im- 
proving and  increasing  it  on  the  other  ;  by  which  means  they 
hope  to  extricate  the  government  from  its  pecuniary  embar- 
rassments, and  place  its  finances  on  a  safe  foundation.  In  a 
report  of  the  present  minister  of  finance,  made  in  November 
1823,  after  unfolding  the  deplorable  condition  of  the  treasury 
and  finances,  he  says  : — 

"  This  melancholy  and  alarming  picture  induced  the  minis- 
ter to  represent  the  state  of  the  finances  in  the  manner  he  did 
in  his  memoir  of  the  second  of  June.  The  present  executive 
has  used  every  means  to  redeem  the  nation  from  this  critical 
and  deplorable  state.  They  adopted  a  totally  different  sys- 
tem— they  suspended  entirely  the  forced  loans  and  heavy  con- 
tributions about  to  be  exacted — stopped  the  emission  of  pa- 
per money,  and  adopted  the  most  rigid  economy  in  every 
branch  of  the  administration ;  giving  themselves  an  example 
of  simplicity  and  frugality.  The  most  beneficial  consequen- 
ces have  resulted  from  this  conduct :  but  the  prosperity  of  the 
country  is  retarded  by  the  dissentions  that  exist  in  the  provin- 
ces. It  cannot  be  said  that  for  the  last  six  months  any  one 
has  been  compelled  to  loan  money  :  nor  have  any  heavy  bur- 
dens been  laid  upon  the  people.  If  the  merchants  have  gen- 
erously and  gratuitously  furnished  the  government  with  funds, 
they  have  been  compensated  by  receiving  a  tenth  of  the  pro- 
duct of  the  customs  ;  and  of  fifty-two  thousand  three  hundred 
fifty-seven  dollars  received  in  the  months  of  April  and  June, 
they  have  been  paid  thirty-six  thousand  one  hundred  forty- 
three  dollars  ;  and  the  debt  will  be  entirely  discharged  this 
month.  The  paper  money  has  been  in  part  reduced  by  re- 
ceiving a  sixth  part  in  payment  of  duties;  so  that  the  dollar 
which  was  not  worth  more  than  twenty-five  cents,  is  now  worth 
seventy-five — a  certain  sign  of  the  state  of  public  credit." 

From  the  first  of  April  to  the  end  of  last  September,  the  re- 
ceipts of  the  Treasury  were,  .  .  $1,213,51304 
Disbursements  in  the  same  period,  .  1,200,681  17 

Due  on  the  civil  and  military  lists,  .         .         12,831  07 

305,927  05 


Debts,  .         .         293,096  02 

Payments  made  to  redeem  the  paper  medium 

within  the  same  epoch,  were  .         .     732,168  10 

439,071  08 


128  HISTORY    AND    PRESENT 

Moneys  received  from  Mr.  B.  Vigors  Rich- 
ards on  account  of  a  loan,  *          ,          88,009  05 


351,061  03 

.Debt  contracted  in  the  preceding  twenty- 
five  months,         .....          $5,936,549  08 

The  minister  proposes  as  sources  of  revenue,  to  retain  the 
monopoly  on  tobacco,  which  formerly  has  produced  four  mil- 
lions ;  the  duty  on  stamps  estimated  at  three  hundred  thou- 
sand dollars  ;  the  excise  on  pulque  and  other  liquors,  which 
has  produced  nearly  seven  hundred  thousand  dollars,  but  in 
1822,  yielded  only  two  hundred  and  three  thousand  nine  hun- 
dred thirty-nine  dollars  ;  and  the  duties  on  gold  and  silver. 
The  revenue  from  this  last  source,  formerly  the  principal  one, 
is  greatly  diminished,  from  the  depressed  state  of  the  mines  ; 
the  tenth  formerly  exacted,  was  reduced  in  1822,  to  three  per 
cent.  He  proposes  a  duty  of  fifty  cents  upon  each  head  of 
black  cattle  that  is  slaughtered  ;  twenty-five  for  each  sheep, 
and  fifty  for  each  hog  ;  he  also  proposes  to  increase  the  duty 
on  domestic  liquors ;  to  abolish  the  alcabalas  or  duty  on  the 
sale  of  produce  and  merchandize,  as  being  oppressive  and 
yielding  but  little  to  the  revenue ;  to  dispose  of  the  property 
of  the  inquisition,  and  that  formerly  belonging  to  the  Jesuits, 
which  had  not  been  sold,  which  he  estimates  at  two  millions 
four  hundred  five  thousand  six  hundred  forty-five  dollars.  The 
post-office  and  lotteries,  which  had  been  separate  departments, 
he  proposes  to  unite  into  one,  to  save  expense,  and  to  reduce 
the  expenses  of  the  mint,  which  for  the  six  preceding  months, 
had  been  an  expense  to  the  government  of  twenty-one  thou- 
sand eight  hundred  thirty-five  dollars.  The  minister  proposes 
to  reduce  the  tariff,  or  imposts  on  imports,  to  twenty-two  or 
twenty-three  per  cent,  including  the  consulate  duty.  At  that 
time  the  impost  was  twenty-five  per  cent,  exclusive  of  the  con- 
sulate duty.  He  is  in  favour  of  restrictions  on  foreign  impor- 
tations, and  thought  the  articles  of  merchandize  incorrectly 
classed  in  the  existing  tariff.  The  revenue  from  imports,  from 
the  first  of  April  to  the  first  of  September  in  1823,  he  states 
at  nine  hundred  seventy-one  thousand  three  hundred  forty- 
five  dollars,  an  increase  of  one  hundred  seventy-seven  thou- 
sand eight  hundred  eighty-four  dollars,  over  the  revenue  dur- 
ing the  same  period  of  time,  the  preceding  year.  He  propo- 
ses to  abolish  the  duty  on  exports  as  it  respects  articles  of 
most  importance,  which  he  enumerates,  and  finally  recom- 


OF    MEXICO.  129 

mends  the  collection  of  the  revenue  on  the  model  or  plan  of 
the  United  States.* 

The  following  statement  exhibits  the  receipts  and  expendi- 
tures for  the  six  months  preceding  the  report,  and  the  estima- 
ted receipts,  with  the  proposed  changes  in  the  system  for  one 
year,  and  also  the  estimated  expenses.  According  to  this 
statement,  the  revenue  exceeds  the  expenditures  a  little  more 
than  one  million. 

"  The  receipts  of  the  Treasury   for  the  last  six   months 
amount  to $6,418,814 

The  disbursements  were  as  follows: — 
Expenses  of  the  monopolies  of  tobacco 

and  gunpowder,  and  of  the  mint,  .  .  $2,893,403 
Expenses  of  all  the  other  departments,     2,697,630 

Total  expenditure  for  six  months,  .  ,  5,591,033 
Contingencies,    .    . 827,781 

$6,418,814 

Receipts  for  one  year, 12,837,628 

Proposed  augmentation : — 

On  tobacco, 648,836 

On  stamps,    .  .  . * 268,135 

On  imports  and  exports, 500,000 

On  excise  on  pulque,  &>  other  liquors,  and  on  meats,   1 ,000,000 

$15,254,599 

Expenses  :  —  r i asm 

Foreign  Affairs, 360,87 

Administration  of  Justice, 159,023 

Treasury, 3,351,485 

Army, 9,922,782 

Navy,     473,014 

$14,267,182 

By  an  official  report  of  the  minister  of  finance,  in  1825,  the 
whole  expenses  of  the  current  year  are  estimated  at  eighteen 
millions  of  dollars,  and  the  revenue  only  amounting  to  ten 
millions  six  hundred  thousand  dollars,  leaves  a  deficit  of  more 
than  seven  millions  of  dollars  ;  to  supply  this,  the  report  pro- 
poses the  establishment  of  the  rents  on  the  manufacture  of  to- 
bacco, and  the  duties  on  gold  and  silver  in  bullion  and  coin, 
which  it  is  supposed  will  nearly  supply  the  deficit. 

Population  and  Character  of  the  Inhabitants. — The  popula- 
tion of  Mexico  has  been  derived  from  three  sources  or  races* 

*  Reportof  the  Minister  of  France,  Nov.  1823. 


130  HISTORY    AND    PRESENT 

the  Europeans,  the  Indians,  and  the  Africans  or  negroes.  The 
population  at  present  consists  of  two  great  divisions,  the 
"Whites,  and  the  people  of  colour.  The  former  is  subdivided 
into  natives  of  Spain,  called  chapetones,  or  gachupines,  and 
those  born  in  America,  Creoles.  The  white  population,  pre- 
vious to  the  revolution,  was  estimated  at  one  million  two  hun- 
dred thousand,  of  which  only  seventy  or  eighty  thousand  were 
natives  of  Europe,  about  one  fourteenth  part  of  the  white  in- 
habitants. Since  the  independence  of  the  country  and  estab- 
lishment of  a  free  government  affording  equal  political  rights 
and  privileges  to  all  classes,  this  distinction  is  disappearing, 
and  in  a  few  years  must  be  wholly  lost.  The  people  of  colour 
comprise  the  greater  part  of  the  population,  and  form  three 
divisions ;  the  Indians,  the  Africans  and  the  casts  or  mixt  ra- 
ces. The  number  of  Africans  is  very  small,  less  than  in  any 
other  part  of  America  under  the  torrid  zone,  and  has  been  es- 
timated not  to  exceed  six  thousand.  The  Indians  have  been 
constantly  decreasing,  and  the  casts  continually  increasing, 
and  have  been  estimated  at  two  millions  four  hundred  thousand, 
comprising  at  that  period  nearly  one  half  of  the  whole  popula- 
tion. There  are  various  casts,  but  the  Mestizos,  or  descend- 
ants of  a  white  and  an  Indian,  compose  the  principal  part. 
Their  skin  is  of  a  pure  white  colour,  with  a  peculiar  transpa- 
rency ;  their  beard  thin,  their  hands  and  feet  siriall,  and  they 
have  an  obliquity  of  the  eyes.  The  offspring  of  a  Mestizos, 
and  a  white,  differs  very  little  from  an  European.  The  de- 
scendants of  an  Indian  and  Negro,  are  called  Zambos  or  Sam- 
bos, and  the  descendants  of  a  white  and  a  negro,  are  called 
mulattoes.*  There  are  various  other  casts,  or  mixtures  with 
different  shades  of  colour,  and  different  degrees  of  European 
blood.  The  whiteness  of  the  skin,  or  rather  the  pureness  of 
the  blood,  formerly  determined  the  rank  of  every  person,  and 
this  was  a  matter  of  so  much  importance,  that  families  often 
obtained  from  the  high  court  of  justice  an  official  declaration, 
establishing  their  whiteness  or  European  blood. 

The  population  of  Mexico,  was  estimated  by  Humboldt,  in 
1803,  at  five  millions  seven  hundred  and  eighty-three  thousand 
seven  hundred  and  fifty  ;  and  it  is  now  estimated  by  the  best 
authorities,  after  deducting  500,000  for  the  destruction  of 
the  revolution,  to  be  about  six  million  five  hundred  thousand. 
To  this  may  perhaps  be  added  the  population  of  Chiapa,  amount- 
ing to  one  hundred  and  twenty-eight  thousand. 

The  creoleg,  in  general,  possess  good  natural  talents,  and  a 
great  facility  of  acquiring  knowledge  ;  they  are  extremely  mild 

a  Endinburgh  Encyclopaedia;  article  Mexico* 


STATE   OF   MEXICO. 

3nd  courteous  in  their  manner,  kind  and  benevolent  towards 
each  other,  and  hospitable  to  strangers.  They  are  very  patri- 
otic, and  much  attached  to  the  great  cause  of  independence 
and  liberty.  Their  besetting  sin  is  gambling.  They  possess 
most  of  the  property,  hold  the  principal  offices  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  in  the  army  since  the  establishment  of  the  republic, 
and  comprise  most  of  the  professional  men  and  the  merchants, 
as  well  as  those  that  are  fond  of  literature  and  science. 

The  people  of  colour  comprise  the  labouring  classes,  andxa 
Considerable  part  of  the  troops ;  many  of  them  are  orderly  and 
industrious,  and  make  good  citizens  and  soldiers.  Some  of 
this  class  acquire  property,  and  are  respectable,  and  many  of 
them  have  been  much  devoted  to  the  cause  of  liberty  and  their 
country,  whilst  others  are  indolent,  ignorant,  wretched  and 
filthy.  This  is  said  to  be  particularly  the  case  with  part  of  the 
population  of  the  city  of  Mexico,  where  a  portion  of  the  in- 
habitants, called  Leperos,  are  notorious  beggars,  thieves,  and 
pick-pockets,  and  much  addicted  to  drunkenness.  All  classes 
of  the  people  are  said  to  be  fond  of  smoking  to  excess — fe- 
males, as  well  as  the  men  and  the  boys.  This  custom  appears 
to  be  common  to  most  of  the  Spanish  American  countries. 

Education  and  institutions  of  learning. — Under  the  dark 
shade  of  despotism,  when  there  was  neither  a  free-press,  nor 
free  inquiry  ;  when  it  was  the  policy  of  the  government  to 
keep  the  people  in  ignorance,  little  could  be  expected  of  sci- 
ence or  learning.  But  even  the  reign  of  despotism  did  not 
prevent  occasional  sparks  of  science  from  being  elicited,  which 
often  kindled  into  a  blaze.  The  Creoles  possess  very  lively 
and  active  intellects,  and  apprehend  the  principles  of  science 
with  facility  ;  and  with  all  the  disadvantages  under  which  they 
have  laboured,  they  have  afforded  some  good  scholars,  who 
have  done  honour  to  the  age  in  which  they  lived.  In  the  cap- 
ital, the  mathematical  sciences,  chemistry,  mineralogy  and 
botany,  have  been  cultivated  with  success.  In  mathematics, 
they  can  boast  of  the  illustrious  names  of  Valasques,  born  in 
1732,  a  self-taught  astronomer  of  Gama,  his  fellow-labourer, 
and  Alzate,  all  of  whom  possessed  genius  of  the  highest  or- 
der ;  in  chemistry,  M.  Sesse  and  M.  Echeveria  were  distin- 
guished for  their  extensive  acquirements ;  and  in  sculpture 
they  can  boast  of  M.  Tolsa,  whose  equestrian  statue  of  Charles 
V.  is  considered  as  superior  to  any  similar  work  extant,  ex- 
cept that  of  M.  Aurelius  at  Rome.  Alzate,  a  man  of  ardent 
genius,  published  a  literary  gazette  at  Mexico,  to  diffuse  a 
knowledge  of  the  physical  sciences,  and  excite  a  spirit  of 
learning  among  his  countrymen.  The  mathematics  were  ex- 
tensively taught  in  the  university  of  Mexico,  and  also  in  the 


132  HISTORY  AND  PRESENT 

.Mineria,  OK  school  of  mines.  Besides  these,  there  are  several 
colleges,  academies  of  fine  arts  and  schools  ;  and  it  has  been 
said,  that  Mexico  had  more  solid,  scientific  institutions,  than 
any  other  town  in  America,  not  excepting  the  United  States. 
JVlany  of  the  young  Creoles  visited  Europe,  for  the  purpose  of 
travelling,  or  to  complete  their  education,  and  thus  acquired  a 
taste  for  literature,  the  arts,  and  the  sciences.* 

During  the  colonial  system  in  the  cities,  most  of  the  people 
were  taught  to  read  and  write ;  but  in  other  settlements,  in- 
struction was  greatly  neglected.  Since  the  revolution,  a  dif- 
ferent policy  prevails,  and  a  new  impulse  has  been  given  to 
education  and  the  diffusion  of  knowledge.  The  dynasty  of 
ignorance  has  ended,  and  the  reign  of  intelligence  commenc- 
ed, under  favourable  auspices.  The  policy  of  the  old  govern- 
ment, was  to  keep  the  people  in  ignorance :  that  of  the  pres- 
ent, is  entirely  different ;  it  declares,  that  "  without  education? 
liberty  cannot  exist ;  and  that  the  more  diffused  is  the  former, 
the  more  solidly  cemented  will  be  the  latter."!  The  solemn 
annunciation  of  this  important  truth  has  induced  the  govern- 
ment, amidst  all  its  pressing  concerns  and  pecuniary  embar- 
rassments, to  do  every  thing  in  its  power  to  promote  an  object 
so  essential  to  the  prosperity  of  the  republic.  Provision  has 
been  made  for  the  establishment  of  primary  schools,  which 
are  entrusted  to  the  city  councils.  They  have  generally  been 
established  ;  but  in  some  places  they  have  not,  for  the  want  of 
funds,  and  in  others  they  are  almost  useless,  from  the  incapa- 
city of  the  teachers  and  the  lowness  of  salaries.  In  the  capi- 
tal, a  society  has  been  founded  under  the  patronage  of  the  gov- 
ernment, for  the  purpose  of  introducing  the  system  of  mutual 
instruction,  or  Lancastrian  plan  of  education ;  and  a  school 
has  been  established  in  a  convent,  capable  of  containing  six- 
teen hundred  scholars.  It  is  the  design  of  government  to  have 
other  societies  formed  in  the  different  cities  on  the  same  model, 
and  for  the  same  objects  as  the  one  in  the  capital.  This  has 
been  done  in  Guadalaxara,  Guanaxuato,  San  Luis  Potosi,  and 
other  large  towns,  where  schools  on  the  Lancastrian  plan  of 
mutual  instruction  have  been  established,  which  promise  to  be 
extensively  useful.  The  government  has  not  neglected  the 
higher  branches  of  education,  but  has  appointed  a  committee 
of  enlightened  men  to  inquire  into  the  condition  of  the  uni- 
versities, colleges,  academies  and  libraries,  which  will  enable 
the  congress  to  adopt  the  proper  measures  for  their  melioration 
and  encouragement.  It  appears  by  the  report  of  the  secreta- 

*Ed.  Encyclo.  Ar.  Mexico, 
f  Kept,  of  Mexican  Sec.  of  State,  Nov. 


STATE  OF  MEXICO.  133 

ry  of  state,  that  the  government  is  affording  every  encourage- 
ment in  its  power  to  increase  the  means  and  facilities  of  edu- 
cation ;  and  many  of  the  citizens  are  nobly  seconding  their  ex- 
ertions. An  investigation  having  been  made  into  the  condi- 
tion of  the  old  colleges  and  universities,  some  of  them  will  be 
restored,  but  conducted  on  different  principles,  and  others  re- 
established on  an  entirely  rrew  plan.  In  San  Luis  Potosi, 
42,000  dollars  have  been  subscribed  by  the  inhabitants  for  the 
erection  of  a  college,  and  similar  exertions  are  also  making 
for  the  establishment  of  a  college  at  Guanaxuato.  There  is 
also,  a  college  now  in  operation  in  Zelaya.  Measures  have 
been  adopted  for  preserving  the  records  and  documents  in  the 
archives  of  the  colonial  government.  The  plan  is  to  assort 
and  arrange  them,  and  make  a  copious  index,  so  that  any 
document  can  readily  be  found.  This  service  is  to  be  perform- 
ed under  the  direction  of  the  secretary  of  state.  The  docu- 
ments and  papers  of  the  department  of  excise  afford  an  index, 
which,  together  with  the  printed  tracts  on  the  subject,  make 
eighty-two  volumes.  From  the  branches  of  finance,  ecclesi- 
astical benefices  and  indulgences,  four  thousand  five  hundred 
and  ninety-six  documents  have  already  been  deposited  in  the 
secretary's  office.*  Among  the  means  for  the  diffusion  of 
knowledge,  which  owe  their  origin  to  the  new  order  of  things, 
that  of  the  establishment  of  newspapers  is  by  no  means  the 
least  important.  The  government  has  also  adopted  another 
regulation,  which  is  worthy  of  imitation  ;  it  has  ordered  that 
in  each  city  there  shall  be  established,  in  the  city-hall,  a  public 
reading  room,  to  be  supplied  with  the  laws  and  public  docu- 
ments by  the  government,  and  by  newspapers  and  other  valua- 
ble periodical  works,  by  small  subscriptions  a^iong  the  inhab- 
itants.! 

Religion. — Protestant  nations  have  left  Roman  Catholic 
countries  (with  perhaps  the  exception  of  France)  at  a  distance 
"  behind  them,  in  the  moral  and  intellectual  sciences,  in  politics, 
in  the  diffusion  of  knowledge,  and  those  improvements  which 
promote  the  freedom  and  happiness  of  individuals  and  the 
prosperity  of  nations.  Hence  it  is  inferred,  that  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion  is  not  favourable  for  intellectual  and  scientif- 
ic exertion.  There  are  two  reasons  for  this  ;  the  first  is,  that 
its  spirit  is  intolerant,  and  calculated  to  stifle  mental  inquiry 
and  exertion  ;  the  second,  that  it  is  a  religion  of  external 
forms  and  ceremonies,  pompous  and  imposing,  which  serve  to 
engross  the  attention,  and  by  confining  the  mind  to  external  ob- 

*  North  Am.  Review  for  October,  1825. 
f  Report  of  the  Secretary  of  State. 
Vor.  T»  12 


134  HISTORY    AND    PRESENT 

jects  withdraw  it  from  intellectual.  In  a  word,  it  is  calculated 
to  enslave  the  mind,  and  when  that  is  fettered,  little  improve- 
ment can  be  expected. 

From  the  early  settlement  of  Spanish  America,  the  estab- 
lished hierarchy  has  been  both  an  instrument  and  a  cause  of 
oppression.  Whilst  it  strengthened  the  despotism  of  the  gov- 
ernment, it  added  a  darker  and  keeper  shade  to  it.  Clothed 
•with  power,  and  armed  with  the  Inquisition,  its  influence  was 
great,  and  always  exerted  on  the  side  of  the  government,  and 
was  a  principal  cause  of  the  ignorance  of  the  people.  The 
ecclesiastical  establishment  in  Mexico  was  formed  on  the 
same  model  as  that  of  Spain,  and  had  its  full  train  of  dignita- 
ries. The  inferior  clergy  were  divided  into  three  classes  ; 
the  curas,  who  were  parish  priests,  employed  in  the  settle- 
ments ;  the  doctrineros,  who  had  the  charge  of  districts  in- 
habited by  Indians,  subject  to  the  Spanish  government ;  and  • 
the  missioneros,  who  were  employed  in  converting  the  Indios 
Bravios,  or  wilde  tribe,  not  reduced  under  the  Spanish  yoke. 
Many  of  the  inferior  clergy  suffered  extreme  poverty,  whilst 
the  incomes  of  some  of  the  high  dignitaries  exceeded  that  of 
many  of  the  sovereign  princes  of  Germany.  The  archbish- 
op of  Mexico  enjoyed  an  income  of  one  hundred  and  twenty^ 
one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  seventy-five  dollars,  and  sev- 
eral of  the  bishops  but  little  less  ;  at  the  same  time  that  some 
of  the  priests,  in  the  Indian  villages,  received  only  the  pit- 
tance of  twenty  or  twenty-five  pounds  sterling.  The  clergy  in 
Spain,  previous  to  the  revolution,  amounted  to  about  thirteen  or 
fourteen  thousand,  one  half  of  which  were  regulars,  and  wore 
the  cowl.* 

The  clergy  were  violently  opposed  to  the  revolution,  and 
were  the  principal  cause  of  the  long  struggle,  and  of  the  suc- 
cessful efforts  of  the  government  for  twelve  years.  After  the 
Cortes  in  Spain  undertook  to  reform  the  ecclesiastical  estab- 
lishment in  the  peninsula,  the  clergy  in  Mexico  declared 
against  the  Spanish  Cortes,  and  became  in  favour  of  a  revolu- 
tion ;  and  their  influence  was  by  no  means  the  least  consider- 
able in  bringing  about  the  plan  of  Iguala. 

Whilst  the  revolution  has  regenerated  Mexico,  in  every 
•ther  respect,  and  swept  off  the  colonial  despotism,  with  all 
its  train  of  corruptions  and  abuses,  it  has  as  yet  done  but  lit- 
tle to  relieve  the  nation  from  the  thraldom  of  an  established 
hierarchy  and  the  worst  of  all  despotisms,  that  of  superstition, 
which  is  an  enslavement  of  the  mind. 

It  is  declared,  in  the  third  article  of  the  constitutional  act, 

*  EdiBbwrg  Encyclopedia,  article  Mexico. 


STATE    OP    MEXICO. 


135 


"  that  the  religion  of  the  Mexican  nation  is,  and  shall  be  per- 
petually, the  Catholic,  Apostolic,  Roman.  The  nation  pro- 
tects it  by  just  and  wise  laws,  and  prohibits  the  exercise  of 
any  other."  This  provision  but  little  accords  with  the  free, 
just,  and  liberal  principles  of  the  constitution  of  which  it  com- 
poses a  part,  and  casts  the  only  dark  shade  on  the  luminous 
political  horizon  of  the  nation,  and  its  fair  prospect  of  a  splen- 
did career  of  moral,  political  and  social  advancement.  The 
Mexican  congress  is  an  enlightened  body,  and  we  may  sup- 
pose that,  like  Solon,  when  giving  laws  to  Athons,  it  thought 
this  provision  was  as  perfect  as  the  nation  was  prepared  to  re- 
ceive. Whilst  this  constitutional  principle  remains,  it  will  ob- 
struct the  free  exercise  of  religion,  the  freedom  of  inquiry, 
and  the  enjoyment  of  the  rights  of  conscience  ;  but  will  not 
prevent  the  government  from  reforming  the  ecclesiastical  es- 
•  tablishment,  and  correcting  its  inveterate  abuses,  the  growth 
of  time  and  despotism.  This  necessary  work  of  reformation 
has  already  been  commenced  ;  and  a  spirit  of  liberality  and 
toleration  is  increasing. 


HISTORY 

OF    THE 

REVOLUTION  IN  MEXICO. 

CHAPTER  VII J. 

Causes  which  led  to  the  revolution — Junta  of  Seville  sends  depu- 
ties to  America — Junta  established  in  Mexico — Conspiracy 
against  the  Ficeroy-^Regency  of  Cadiz — Hidalgo  raises  the 
standard  of  revolt — takes  Guanaxuato — The  Viceroy  attempts 
to  conciliate  the  people — spirit  of  the  Revolution  spreads  rap- 
idly— Military  preparations  of  Hidalgo — organizes  his  army 
—Revolutionists  are  excommunicated — Hidalgo  threatens  the 
capital — he  retires — is  attacked  by  the  Royalists — retreats  to 
the  town  of  Guanaxuato — is  defeated  with  great  loss — betrayed 
— taken  prisoner  and  executed. 

THE  causes  of  the  revolution  in  Spanish  America,  are  not 
found  in  any  change  of  policy  on  the  part  of  Spain,  nor  in 
any  essential  variation  in  the  sentiments  of  the  Americans 
respecting  the  parent  country. — A  people,  who  enjoyed  no 
political  rights,  could  be  deprived  of  none  ;  no  such  disputes, 
therefore,  could  arise  respecting  the  rights  of  the  colonies, 
and  the  prerogatives  of  the  crown,  as  existed  between  Great 
Britain  and  her  American  possessions.  The  flames  of  civil 
war  were  not  enkindled  in  the  Spanish  colonies  by  resistance 
to  a  tax  on  tea,  or  a  denial  of  the  unqualified  right  of  taxa- 
tion, claimed  to  be  binding  on  the  colonies  "  in  all  cases  what- 
soever"— since  to  this  they  had  for  three  centuries  quietly  sub- 
mitted. Although  the  North  American,  and  French  revolu- 
tions, may  have  shed  some  rays  of  light  over  these  countries, 
yet  the  causes  of  their  recent  civil  changes  are  to  be  sought 
for  solely  in  the  peculiar  condition  of  Spain,  and  the  total  de- 
jrangement  of  her  monarchy. 

Leaving  out  of  the  account,  the  unfortunate  attempt  at  La 


REVOLUTION    IN  MEXICO,  137 

Paz,  the  bloody  drama  of  the  revolution  first  opened  in  Colom- 
bia, and  as  the  struggle  there  was  most  protracted  and  severe, 
and  its  final  success  having  been  the  means  of  the  emancipa- 
tion of  the  other  colonies,  Colombia  seems  to  possess  a  more 
commanding  revolutionary  character  than  any  of  her  sister  re- 
publics. Consequently,  in  the  history  of  the  contest  in  Co- 
lombia, we  shall  endeavour  to  give  a  full  and  satisfactory  ac- 
count of  the  causes  and  events  of  the  revolution,  as  it  respects 
Spain  and  her  colonies  generally,  and  as  to  the  other  repub- 
licks,  confine  our  narration  in  a  great  measure  to  local  occur- 
rences. 

Spain  had  for  more  than  a  century  been  on  a  decline,  when 
in  1808,  a  finishing  stroke  was  given  to  her  degradation,  by 
the  ambitious  designs  of  the  Emperor  Napolean.  Not  satis- 
fied with  having  reduced  the  Peninsula  to  a  condition  little 
above  that  of  a  conquered  state,  and  with  draining  off  its  re- 
sources to  support  his  wars,  Buonaparte  made  one  of  the 
boldest  attempts  recorded  in  history,  to  seize  on  the  country 
and  transfer  the  crown  to  his  own  family.  Partly  by  fraud, 
but  more  by  force,  he  obtained  possession  of  the  persons 
of  Ferdinand  VII.  his  father,  and  most  of  the  royal  family, 
caused  them  to  pass  over  into  France,  and  detained  them  at 
Bayonne,  where,  in  May  1808,  the  father  was  constrained  to 
abdicate  to  his  son,  and  the  latter,  to  renounce  his  crown  to 
Joseph  Buonaparte. 

And  as  all  regulations,  respecting  Spanish  America,  must 
be  approved  of  by  the  Council  of  the  Indies,  a  decree  of  that 
Council  transferred  the  dominions  of  Spain,  in  America,  to 
king  Joseph,  in  confirmation  of  the  cessions  at  Bayonne. 
Buonaparte  sent  to  America  agents,  to  communicate  to  the 
Spanish  chiefs,  and  through  them  to  the  people,  the  political 
change  which  had  taken  place,  and  to  demand  their  allegiance. 
All  the  Spanish  chiefs,  with  the  exception  of  the  Viceroy  of 
New  Spain,  seemed  willing  to  yield  to  this  revolution,  and  ac- 
knowledge the  supremacy  of  their  new  sovereign  ;  they  being 
all  assured  of  retaining  their  places.  At  this  period,  it  was 
thepeople,  and  not  the  royal  governors,  who  shewed  their  loy- 
alty ;  they  were  shocked  at  the  thought  of  being  transferred, 
like  so  many  cattle,  to  another  master,  and  that  master  Na- 
polean Buonaparte,  who  had  done  so  much  to  oppress  their 
parent  country.  They  were  indignant,  too,  at  the  foul  treat- 
ment which  their  sovereign  had  received.  An  unusual  ferment 
was  excited  among  the  people,  the  proclamations  of  Buona- 
parte were  burnt,  and  his  agents,  glad  to  quit  the  country,  to 
save  their  lives.  This  spirit  prevailed,  in  a  greater  or  less  de- 
gree, throughout  Spanish  America. 

12* 


138  HISTORY    OF    THE 

A  similar  spirit  soon  disclosed  itself,  also,  m  old  Spam,  and 
a  general  revolt  of  the  inhabitants  against  the  authority  of 
the  Buonapartes,  occurred  in  the  peninsula.  Intelligence  of 
this  reached  Mexico  on  the  29th  of  July,  1808.  It  immedi- 
ately raised  the  feelings  of  the  people  into  the  highest  enthu- 
siasm. In  Spain,  juntas  were  established  in  the  different 
provinces,  for  their  government  and  security.  The  junta  at 
Seville  styled  itself  the  supreme  junta  of  Spain  and  the  In- 
dies ;  several  other  of  the  provincial  juntas  claimed  the  like 
superiority,  which  led  to  dissentions  in  the  peninsula,  and  dis- 
tracted the  Americans,  so  that  they  knew  not  which  to  acknowl- 
edge, as  entitled  to  their  allegiance.  Before  the  enthusiasm 
had  subsided  in  Mexico,  the  deputies  sent  by  the  junta  of  Se- 
ville arrived  in  America,  to  demand  the  sovereignty  of  the 
country  ;  and  to  induce  the  colonies  to  yield  obedience  to  the 
junta,  the  deputies  represented  that  its  authority  was  sub- 
mitted to,  throughout  the  whole  of  Spain. 

Such  was  the  hostility  of  the  people  against  the  French, 
and  their  loyalty  and  zeal  towards  their  sovereign,  that  they 
seemed  ready  to  acknowledge  the  authority  of  any  tribunal 
in  Spain,  although  self-created,  which  claimed  their  allegiance 
in  the  name  of  their  king.  A  meeting  was  called  of  the  civil 
and  military  officers,  and  a  general  disposition  prevailed  to  re- 
cognise the  pretensions  of  the  Seville  junta  ;  but  during  the 
debates  on  the  question,  despatches  were  received  from  the 
junta  of  Asturias,  in  Spain,  denouncing  the  ambitious  views 
of  the  Andalusian  junta,  and  warning  the  Mexican  govern- 
ment against  acknowledging  its  pretensions.  The  regency 
which  Ferdinand  had  established  at  Madrid,  on  his  leaving  the 
country,  also  claimed  the  supreme  power,  in  Spain  and  Ameri- 
ca. These  numerous  tribunals  in  Spain,  claiming  the  supreme 
authority  and  the  obedience  of  the  colonies,  and  denying  each 
other's  claims,  produced  distrust  among  the  Americans,  and 
placed  them  in  a  perplexing  dilemma.  The  power  of  the 
monarchy  was  overthrown  or  suspended,  and  there  being  no 
government  in  Spain,  not  even  a  government  de  facto,  which 
could  claim  their  obedience,  or  afforded  them  protection, 
their  situation  suggested  the  necessity  of  providing  for  their 
own  security,  by  the  establishment  of  some  provisional  govern- 
ment. The  Cabilfh,  or  municipality  of  Mexico,  on  the  5th  of 
A.ugust,  1808,  presented  a  memorial  to  Iturrigaray,  the  viceroy, 
for  the  assembling  of  a  junta,  from  which  we  make  an  extract  : 

"  Juntas  of  the  government,  and  respectable  bodies  of  the 
cities  and  kingdoms,  are  no  more  than  in  exact  conformity  to 
the  law,  which  ordains  that  all  arduous  cases  shall  be  consid- 
ered of  in  general  assemblies.  As  in  existing  circumstances, 
in  consequence  of  the  seizure  of  the  king,  the  sovereignty  is 


REVOLUTION    IN    MEXICO.  139 

vested  in  the  nation  in  order  that  its  interests  may  be  consult- 
ed, the  united  authorities,  together  with  the  municipalities, 
which  are  the  heads  of  the  people,  do  exactly  the  same  as 
would  the  monarch  himself  for  the  general  welfare. 

"  Mexico  has  in  view  the  same  principles  that  influenced 
Seville,  Valencia,  and  the  othes  cities  of  Spain  ;  and  she  is 
empowered,  in  like  manner  as  the  above  two  faithful  capitals, 
to  do  what  she  conceives  is  advisable  in  such  urgent  circum- 
stances. 

"  These  examples  point  out  what  ought  to  be  done — to  or- 
ganize a  governing  junta,  composed  of  the  royal  audiencia,  the 
archbishop,  municipality,  and  deputies  from  the  tribunals, 
ecclesiastical  and  secular  bodies,  the  nobility,  and  principal 
citizens,  as  well  as  the  military.  This  junta  shall  deliberate 
on  the  most  weighty  subjects  that  concern  us,  which  shall  be 
determined  conformably  to  our  interests. 

"  The  junta  is  necessary,  for,  although  we  are  at  present 
free  from  the  urgent  danger  which  threatened  us  on  the  side 
of  France,  we,  nevertheless,  ought  not  to  neglect  our  means 
of  defence,  till  we  receive  such  positive  advices,  as  may  place 
us  perfectly  at  ease.  It  is,  at  the  same  time,  necessary  to  sat- 
isfy the  wishes  of  the  people,  by  restoring  to  them  those 
means  they  formerly  had  of  appeal  to  the  council  of  the  Indies, 
or  to  the  person  of  the  king  ;  and,  finally,  many  amendments 
ought  to  be  made  in  the  nomination  to  secular  and  ecclesias- 
tical dignities.  These  are  the  only  means,  in  consequence  of 
the  absence  of  the  monarch,  by  which  the  kingdom,  being  thus 
united,  may  overcome  all  its  difficulties. 

u  This  union  of  authorities  is  likewise  necessary,  as  being 
the  best  means  to  produce  unanimity  in  the  minds  of  the  peo- 
ple ;  which  will  prevent  the  fatal  consequences  which  must 
arise  throughout  the  country  from  disunion.  Every  one  will 
then  be  happy  ;  their  patriotism  and  wishes  will  be  united  by 
love,  enthusiasm,  and  a  sense  of  the  public  good. 

"  The  city,  consequently,  thinks  that  the  time  is  arrived  for 
adopting  the  same  means  as  have  been  carried  into  effect  in 
Spain.  The  junta  which  your  excellency  is  to  form,  for  the 
present,  of  the  authorities  and  respectable  bodies  above  men- 
tioned, when  the  representatives  of  the  kingdom  are  assem- 
bled, will  carefully  examine  its  interests,  &c. 

"  But  the  two  fundamental  points  on  which  the  junta  is  to 
act,  ought  not  to  be  forgotten.  The  first  is,  that  the  authori- 
ties retain  the  full  extent  of  their  power,  in  the  same  manner 
as  if  the  derangement  which  we  deplore  in  the  monarchy  had 
not  taken  place  ;  that  is,  that  your  excellency  shall  still  hold 
the  same  power  which  the  laws  grant,  and  that  the  same  be 


140  HISTORY  OF    THE 

X 

observed  with  respect  to  the  other  tribunals.  The  second  is, 
that  in  order  to  fill  up  the  immense  void  which  exists  between 
the  authority  of  your  excellency  and  the  sovereign,  the  propos- 
ed junta  is  to  be  had  recourse  to." 

The  viceroy  felt  himself  embarrassed  in  his  situation,  and 
knew  not  how  to  act.  His  advanced  years  and  want  of  vig- 
our, rendered  his  conduct  indecisive  and  temporizing.  He 
was  inclined  to  grant  the  prayer  of  the  petitioners,  thinking 
the  measure  reasonable  and  just ;  but  was  afraid  of  the  Span- 
iards, who  he  knew  were  violently  opposed  to  it.  In  this  di- 
lemma, he  proposed  to  resign  his  authority.  The  Spaniards, 
knowing  his  inclination  to  favour  the  views  of  the  popular  par- 
ty, taking  advantage  of  his  indecision  and  weakness,  formed  a 
conspiracy  against  him,  and  by  bribing  the  officers  command- 
ing the  guards,  about  four  hundred  of  the  conspirators  enter- 
ed the  palace  of  the  viceroy,  at  midnight,  on  the  15th  of  Sep- 
tember, 1808,  seized  him  and  his  lady,  and  committed  the  lat- 
ter to  a  nunnery,  and  the  former  to  the  prisons  of  the  inquisi- 
tion. The  conspirators  consisted,  principally,  of  the  Spanish 
merchants  in  Mexico,  and  they  were  secretly  favoured  in  their 
designs  by  the  court  of  audience  ;  and  the  annunciation  of  the 
imprisonment  of  the  viceroy  was  connected  with  a  suggestion 
of  the  appointment  of  his  successor  by  the  royal  audience. 

A  central  junta  was  established  in  Spain,  composed  of  depu- 
ties from  all  the  provincial  juntas,  which  possessed  the  su- 
preme and  national  authority.  The  violent  proceedings  in 
Mexico  were  not  only  approved  by  the  central  junta,  which 
received  the  intelligence  whilst  in  session  at  Seville,  but  the 
junta  manifested  great  joy  that  the  viceroy,  who  had  favoured 
the  wishes  of  the  Creoles,  had  been  deposed  and  imprisoned, 
without  considering  the  danger  of  the  example,  or  the  evi- 
dence it  afforded,  of  the  feebleness  of  all  sentiments  of  subor- 
dination. These  high-handed  measures  of  the  European  fac- 
tion greatly  exasperated  the  Creoles  against  Jlhe  Spaniards  in 
Mexico.,  and  tended  to  produce  disaffection  towards  the  ru- 
lers of  Spain.  The  authority  of  the  central  junta,  although 
illegal,  (as  the  laws  required  that  in  case  of  a  suspension  of 
the  royal  functions,  the  government  should  be  vested  in  a  re- 
gency,) was,  nevertheless,  submitted  to  by  the  colonists,  and 
large  sums  of  money  remitted  from  America  to  Spain,  which 
enabled  the  Spaniards  to  carry  on  the  war  against  the  French. 
The  appointment,  by  the  central  junta  of  Spain,  of  the  arch- 
bishop, a  mild  and  popular  man,  to  the  .viceroyalty,  greatly 
conciliated  the  affections  of  the  Mexicans,  and  preserved  tran- 
quillity, notwithstanding  much  indignation  continued  against 
the  Spaniards,  who  had  been  engaged  in  the  conspiracy.  This 


REVOLUTION    IN  MEXICO.  14 1 

indignation  was  increased  by  the  honours  which  the  central 
junta  lavished  on  the  European  faction,  and  their  insolent  con- 
duct towards  the  Americans,  which  this  occasioned.  In  this 
state  of  things,  the  people  were  alarmed  by  the  removal  of  the 
archbishop,  and  the  entrusting  the  powers  of  government,  until 
the  arrival  of  the  new  viceroy,  to  the  court  of  audience,  the 
members  of  which  the  inhabitants  regarded  as  their  enemies. 
Victory  had  followed  the  imperial  eagles  in  Spain,  the  Span- 
iards had  been  every  where  defeated,  the  French  occupied 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  peninsula,  and  the  central  junta  were 
dispersed.  Some  of  its  members  retired  to  the  Isle  of  Leon, 
where  the  archbishop  of  Laodicea,  who  had  been  president  of 
the  central  junta,  published  a  paper,  ordering  a  regency  to  be 
formed,  and  naming  the  three  persons  who  were  to  compose 
it.*  The  regency  published  a  proclamation,  addressed  to  the 
Americans,  and  pretending  to  possess  supreme  authority  in 
Spain,  claimed  dominion  over  the  colonies,  and  promised  to 
redress  their  grievances.  The  authority  of  the  regency  was 
considered  as  entirely  illegal,  and  as  little  better  than  self- 
created.  Caraccas  and  other  provinces  refused  to  acknowl- 
edge it. 

The  regency,  commonly  called  the  Regency  of  Cadiz,  nam- 
ed Don  J.  Venegas  as  viceroy  of  New  Spain,  and  conferred 
fresh  honours  and  additional  rewards  on  the  Spanish  faction, 
which,  like  fuel  added  to  an  enkindling  flame,  contributed  to 
spread  disaffection  through  the  whole  country.  The  troops,' 
which  in  time  of  war  are  constantly  stationed  between  Mexico 
and  Vera  Cruz,  to  repel  an  attack  on  the  coast,  after  Iturriga- 
ray  was  deposed,  were  ordered  into  the  interior.  A  regiment 
of  cavalry  was  sent  to  Querctaro,  and  three  captains  in  that 
regiment,  named  Allende,  Aldama,  and  Abasolo,  were  na- 
tives of  the  town  of  San  Miguel  el  Grande,  situated  near  Guan- 
axuato,  two  hundred  and  ten  miles  from  Mexico. 
.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  town  of  San  Miguel, ^is  that  of  Dolores, 
in  the  Intendancy  of  Guanaxuato,  in  which  resided  Don  Mi- 
guel Hidalgo  Castilla,  a  clergyman,  distinguished  for  his  talents 
and  learning,  for  his  liberal  sentiments,  and  his  extensive  gen- 
eral intelligence.  He  had  taken  great  pains  to  instruct  and 
better  the  condition  of  the  Indians,  which  gained  him  their  at- 
tachment, and  from  the  urbanity  of  his  manners  and  the'bene-' 
ficence  of  his  conduct,  he  was  popular  with  all  classes  of  the 
1  inhabitants.  A  particular  friendship  subsisted  between  Hidal- 
go and  Allende,  Aldama,  and  Abasolo.  Hidalgo,  perceiving  the 
general  disaffection  of  the  people  throughout  the-  viceroyalty, 

*  Manifesto  of  the  Congress  of  Rio  de  La  Plata. 


142  HISTORY    OF    THE 

and  the  prevailing  animosities  against  the  Spaniards,  conceived 
a  plan  of  general  insurrection,  for  the  overthrow  of  the  colonial 
government.  The  time  said  to  have  been  fixed  upon  for  the 
rising,  was  the  first  of  November,  1810.  His  plan  was  com- 
municated to  his  three  friends,  Allende,  Aldama,  and  Abasolo, 
who  readily  joined  Hidalgo,  and  by  their  activity  and  exertions, 
sentiments  of  disloyalty  were  rapidly  and  extensively  dissemi- 
nated. Every  circumstance  was  laid  hold  of  which  might  tend 
to  inflame  the  animosity  of  the  natives  against  the  Spaniards, 
and  alienate  them  from  Spain.  The  disaffection  had  been 
spread  extensively,  and  the  plan  in  a  great  degree  matured  for 
execution,  when  one  of  the  conspirators,  a  canon  of  Valladolid, 
on  his  death-bed,  discovered  the  plan  to  a  priest,  of  the  name 
of  Gil,  residing  at  Queretaro.  This  information  was  convey- 
ed to  some  of  the  members  of  the  audiencia,  and  led  to  the  ar- 
rest of  the  corregidor,  Dominguez,  who  was  falsely  charged 
with  being  engaged  in  the  conspiracy.  Alarm  was  instantly 
spread^among  the  conspirators,  who,  fearing  that  their  plan  was 
discovered,  hastened  its  execution.  Allende  was  the  first  to 
raise  the  standard  of  revolt ;  he  assembled,  at  St.  Miguel,  a 
few  soldiers,  who  were  attached  to  him,  and  set  out  for  Dolores. 
The  disaffected  flocked  to  his  standard,  in  his  route,  so  that 
when  he  arrived,  on  the  14th  of  September,  1810,  he  was  at 
the  head  of  eight  hundred  men.  Hidalgo,  the  same  day, 
preached  to  the  Indians,  and  pointed  out  the  oppressions  which 
they  had  suffered  from  the  Spaniards,  since  the  first  discovery 
of  the  country  ;  the  tyranny  and  rapacity  of  the  Spanish  chiefs 
in  America,  and  the  present  distracted  condition  of  Spain, 
without  any  settled  government,  exposed  to  anarchy,  and  the 
danger  there  was  that  it  would  fall  under  the  dominion  of 
France,  and  America  be  either  delivered  up  to  the  French  or 
the  British,  which  would  destroy  the  holy  catholic  religion. 
He  concluded  his  discourse  by  calling  on  the  Indians  to  arm  in 
defence  of  their  religion,  and  to  redress  their  grievances.  A 
summons  to  arms,  came  with  an  odd  grace  from  the  pulpit,  but 
nevertheless  was  obeyed  implicitly  and  with  alacrity.  The  In- 
dians flew  to  arms  with  fury,  and  uniting  with  the  recruits  of 
Allende,  they  proceeded,  with  Hidalgo  at  their  head,  to  San 
Miguel,  and  commenced  ^hostilities  by  plundering  the  houses 
of  the  Spaniards.  Here  two  squadrons  of  the  regiment  of  cav- 
alry of  Reyna,  to  which  Allende  had  belonged,  joined  the  in- 
surgents, and  Hidalgo  immediately  marched  to  Zelaya,  where 
he  was  also  joined  by  the  principal  part  of  the  regiment  of  in- 
fantry of  Zelaya,  and  by  part  of  a  regiment  of  horse. 

Thus  re-enforced,  Hidalgo  proceeded  to  Guanaxuato,  a  pop- 
ulous and  wealthy  town,  containing  at  this  time  eighty  thou- 


REVOLUTION    IN    MEXICO.  143 

sand  inhabitants,  and  situated  one  hundred  and  eighty  miles 
north  and  west  of  Mexico.  The  governor  of  the  Intendancy, 
Riano,  attempted  to  oppose  him,  but,  his  troops  having  declar- 
ed for  the  revolutionists,  he  retired  with  two  hundred  Span- 
iards into  a  building,  and  fired  on  the  assailants.  Having  no 
troops  for  the  defence  of  the  town,  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  Hi- 
dalgo on  the  29th  of  September,  1810,  and  was  an  acquisition 
of  no  small  importance,  as  he  found  in  the  treasury  five  mil- 
lions of  dollars,  consisting  of  specie  and  bar  silver. 

Venegas,  the  new  viceroy,  arrived  in  Mexico  on  the  1 6th  of 
September,  1810,  and  in  a  public  meeting  of  the  principal  in- 
habitants, proclaimed  the  honours  and  rewards  which  the  re- 
gency had  bestowed  on  the  conspirators  against  Iturrigaray, 
who  were  regarded  by  the  inhabitants  as  the  enemies  of  their 
country  and  the  emissaries  of  Spahio  In  a  few  days  the  vice- 
roy obtained  intelligence  of  the  insurrection,  and  of  the  success 
of  Hidalgo.  He  immediately  dispatched  Count  de  la  Cadena 
to  Queretaro,  a  populous  town  and  an  important  military  posi- 
tion. The  inhabitants  of  this  town,  amounting  to  nearly  eighty 
thousand,  were  in  favour  of  the  revolutionary  cause,  and  were 
desirous  of  joining  Hidalgo,  which  was  an  additional  reason 
why  the  viceroy  was  anxious  to  prevent  its  falling  into  the 
hands  of  the  insurgents,  which  he  did  by  a  timely  arrival  of 
royal  troops.  Venegas,  alarmed  at  the  threatening  aspect  of 
the  insurrection  and  the  extent  of  the  disaffection,  attempted 
to  conciliate  the  people,  and  on  the  23d  September,  1810,  is- 
sued a  proclamation,  referring  to  the  decree  of  the  central  jun- 
ta of  Spain,  in  1809,  which  declared  the  colonies  to  be  equal 
with  the  mother  country,  and  promised  that  the  cortes  would 
soon  make  such  reforms  in  the  government  of  America,  as 
would  promote  its  prosperity,  and  satisfy  the  reasonable  wish- 
es of  the  people. 

Hidalgo,  in  the  first  exercise  of  his  high  functions  of  a  chief 
or  ruler,  abolished  the  tribute  paid  by  the  Indians,  which  so  ani- 
mated their  hopes  and  attachments,  that  they  flocked  from  all 
parts  to  join  him,  and  he  soon  found  himself  at  the  head  of  a 
numerous  body  of  men.  To  oppose  the  revolutionists,  Vene- 
gas formed  several  corps  of  Guerrillas  of  Spaniards,  who,  how- 
ever, from  their  violence  and  rapacity,  injured  the  royal  cause, 
and  he  was  obliged  to  disband  them.  He  also  established 
corps  of  militia,  not  entirely  composed  of  Spaniards,  which  he 
called  patriotas.  The  spirit  of  the  insurrection  spread  rapidly 
from  town  to  town ;  producing  general  disaffection,  and  the  rev- 
olutionary cause  extended  and  strengthened  daily.  The  towns 
of  Lagos  celebrated,  from  the  fact,  of  a  great  fair  being  held 
re  every  five  years,  and  Zacatecas^  from  its  situation  near 


144  HISTORY    OF    THE 

some  of  the  richest  mines  in  Mexico,  and  many  others,  declar- 
ed in  favour  of  the  revolution.  Hidalgo  remained  at  Guanax- 
uato,  long  enough  to  introduce  a  little  discipline  among  the 
multitude  who  had  collected  around  the  revolutionary  standard  ; 
forming  them  into  corps,  and  appointing  the  necessary  officers. 
He  also  established  a  mint,  fabricated  cannon  of  wood,  and 
one  of  brass,  with  this  inscription  engraved  upon  it,  el  Liberia- 
dor  Americano,  the  liberator  of  America.  His  greatest  diffi- 
culty was  to  obtain  arms,  for  his  multitude  of  Creoles,  In- 
dians and  mixed  bloods,  who  resembled  a  caravan,  more  than' 
a  regular  army,  had  only  a  few  muskets,  but  were  armed  with 
pikes,  knives,  hatchets,  blunderbusses,  slings,  and  all  sorts  of 
weapons.  Hidalgo  marched  from  Guanaxuato  to  Valladolid, 
and  entered  the  town  on  the  20th  of  October,  1810.  There 
he  was  received  as  a  deliverer,  and  greeted  with  shouts  of  joy 
and  gratitude  by  the  inhabitants.  The  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
authorities  of  the  town  conferred  upon  him  the  highest  hon- 
ours, and  treated  him  with  every  mark  of  distinction;  but 
what  was  more  important  to  Hidalgo,  they  presented  to 
his  military  chest,  one  million  two  hundred  thousand  dollars. 
Two  regiments  of  militia  were  formed,  and  joined  the  popular 
leader.  Hidalgo  fell  back  on  Indaparapeo  on  the  2d  of  Octo- 
ber, where  he  called  a  military  council,  to  improve  the  organ- 
ization of  his  army  ;  numerous  promotions  were  made  ;  Al- 
lende  was  appointed  captain-general,  Aidama,  Ballcsa,  Xirn- 
enes  and  Arias,  were  appointed  lieutenant-generals,  and  Aba- 
solo,  Ocon,  and  the  two  brothers,  Martines,  field  marshals. 
Hidalgo  was  proclaimed  generalissimo  of  the  Mexican  armies  ; 
and  as  such  reviewed  the  troops,  which  were  now  divided  into 
eighty  regiments  of  one  thousand  men  each.  Mass  was  per- 
formed on  the  occasion,  and  a  solemn  Te  Deum  sung.  Regu- 
lations were  adopted  for  the  pay  of  the  army  ;  three  Spanish 
dollars  a  day  was  to  be  the  pay  of  each  infantry  colonel  and 
captain  of  cavalry ;  each  cavalry  soldier  was  to  receive  one 
dollar,  and  each  infantry  soldier  half  a  dollar  per  day.  Hidal- 
go assumed  the  ensigns  and  habilliments  of  his  new  dignity  ; 
his  military  dress  was  blue  with  red  facings,  embroidered  with 
gold  and  silver  ;  and  a  black  sash  embroidered  with  gold.  A 
medal,  with  an  image  of  the  Virgin  de  Guadaloupe,  highly  ven- 
erated by  the  Mexicans,  was  worn  on  his  breast,  and  the  co- 
lours were  white  and  blue,  in  resemblance  of  the  banners  of 
the  ancient  Emperors  of  Mexico,  and  as  a  memento  of  the 
former  independence  of  the  country. 

Having  made  the  necessary  arrangements,  Hidalgo,  at  the 
head  of  a  vast  army,  commenced  his  march  towards  the  capi- 


REVOLUTION    IN    MEXICO.  145 

lal,  and  on  the  27th  of  October,  1810,  entered  the  town  of 
Toluca,  thirty-six  miles  west  of  Mexico. 

A  storm  was  now  gathering  over  the  capital,  which  was  in 
imminent  danger  of  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  revolutionists  ; 
disaffection  prevailed  extensively  in  the  city  ;  the  populace, 
and  a  considerable  part  of  the  higher  orders,  hated  the  Span- 
iards and  detested  the  government.  The  royal  forces  were  at 
a  distance  from  the  capital,  and  from  each  other  ;  Don  F.  Cal- 
leja  was  stationed  at  San  Luis  Potosi,  with  a  brigade,  three 
hundred  miles  from  Mexico.  Count  Cadena  had  three  thou- 
sand troops  at  Queretaro,  and  the  viceroy  had  but  a  handful  of 
men  for  the  defence  of  the  capital,  against  Hidalgo,  and  to 
overawe  the  inhabitants.  The  fall  of  Mexico  was  apparently 
inevitable  ;  but  at  this  alarming  conjuncture,  the  viceroy,  not 
being  able  to  rely  on  the  military  rulers,  called  on  the  ecclesi- 
astical :  as  he  had  not  the  power  of  the  sword,  he  called  to 
his  aid  the  power  of  superstition.  He  applied  to  the  arch- 
bishop of  Mexico,  and  the  officers  of  the  inquisition,  to  ob- 
tain a  bull  of  excommunication  against  Hidalgo,  and  all  his 
followers,  as  rebels  and  heretics.  Accordingly,  excommuni- 
cations, with  all  the  form  and  solemnity  of  hierarchal  craft, 
were  fulminated  against  them,  denouncing  them  as  apostates 
from  the  holy  church,  and  rebels  against  the  state  ;  and  as 
obnoxious  to  the  vengeance  of  both  the  state  and  church,  and 
the  wrath  of  the  Almighty.  To  support  their  denunciations, 
the  inquisition  declared,  that  accusations  had  been  made  against 
Hidalgo  ten  years  before,  to  the  holy  office  ;  but  that  he  then 
had  the  address  or  good  fortune  to  escape  the  punishment 
which  his  crimes  merited.  Hidalgo,  by  a  manifesto,  replied 
to  the  excommunications  of  the  archbishop,  and  the  edict  of 
the  inquisition ;  proclaimed  his  own  sentiments  of  belief,  and 
exposed  their  inconsistency  and  absurdity.  These  excommu- 
nications had  no  effect  on  Hidalgo's  troops :  for  being  himself 
a  priest,  he  seized  the  spiritual  weapons  of  his  adversaries, 
and  turned  them  on  themselves.  He  persuaded  his  adherents, 
that  the  sentence  pronounced  against  them,  proceeding  from 
their  enemies,  could  have  no  effect ;  and  that  the  excommuni- 
cation would,  undoubtedly,  fall  on  the  heads  of  those  who 
pronounced  it,  as  a  punishment  for  their  presumption.  But 
these  terrible  weapons  of  the  church,  were  not  without  their 
influence  on  the  people  ;  the  inhabitants  of  Mexico,  and  the 
provinces  which  were  not  yet  infected  with  the  spirit  of  the 
insurrection,  were  perfectly  tranquil,  and  seemed  petrified 
with  terror. 

The  viceroy  had  sent  his  aid-de-camp,  colonel  Truxillo,  with 
fifteen  hundred  men,  to  Jstlahauca,  to  check  the  advance  of 

VOL.  I.  13 


146  HISTORY    OF    THE 

the  insurgents,  which  were  afterwards  re-enforced  by  five  hun- 
dred more  ;  and  when  Hidalgo  entered  Toluca,  the  royalists 
fell  back  on  Lerrna,  twenty-seven  miles  only  from  Mexico. 
Here  Truxillo  formed  a  bridge  across  the  river  Lerma,  and 
intended  to  dispute  the  passage  with  the  revolutionists  ;  but 
Hidalgo,  having  crossed  the  river  at  a  different  place,  Truxillo 
retired  to  an  eminence,  called  El  Monte  de  las  Cruces,  where 
the  patriots  attacked  him,  and  drove  hirn  from  his  position. 
Whilst  on  his  retreat  to  Mexico,  Hidalgo  sent  envoys  to  Trux- 
illo, with  proposals  for  him  to  join  his  party  ;  he  admitted  the 
deputies  within  his  lines,  and  then  ordered  his  soldiers  to  fire 
on  them.  The  royalists  continued  their  retreat,  and  entered 
the  capital  on  the  30th  of  October,  having,  in  their  flight,  left 
their  artillery  behind.  The  intelligence  of  the  defeat  of  the 
royalists,  at  Monte  de  las  Cruces,  reached  Mexico,  accompa- 
nied with  the  report,  that  the  revolutionists  were  entering  the 
city,  which  produced  great  alarm  ;  and  the  consternation  was 
increased  by  intelligence  that  Morelos,  a  priest  at  the  head  of 
a  body  of  independants,  had  taken  possession  of  several  towns 
in  the  south  of  Mexico,  and  that  Villagran,  another  popular 
leader  at  the  head  of  a  large  force,  was  inarching  towards  the 
capital.  Whilst  the  opposers  of  the  government  were  thus 
numerous  and  increasing,  there  were  but  about  two  thousand 
royal  troops  at  the  capital,  and  no  information  had  been  re- 
ceived where  the  main  army  of  the  royalists  under  Count  Ca- 
dena  was. 

Under  these  appalling  circumstances,  perceiving  little  pros- 
pect of  defending  the  capital,  the  viceroy  and  the  Spaniards 
were  preparing  to  rttire  to  Vera  Cruz  should  the  enemy  pre- 
vail. Venegas,  however,  prepared  to  make  the  best  defence 
he  could,  and  drew  up  his  troops  between  two  public  walks, 
within  the  city,  but  stationed  his  artillery  at  the  entrances  in- 
to the  town.  On  the  31st  of  October,  1810,  the  independ- 
ents were  observed,  by  the  inhabitants,  with  secret  joy,  (as 
their  hearts  were  with  them)  descending  the  hill  Santa  Fe,  as 
it  was  supposed  to  attack  the  viceroy,  who  was  at  the  head  of 
his  troops,  prepared  to  meet  them.  Hidalgo  sent  general 
Ximenes  with  despatches  to  the  viceroy,  who  met  him  in  a 
magnificent  carriage,  attended  by  forty  horsemen,  three  miles, 
from  the  city,  and  delivered  his  message,  which  was  not  an- 
swered, nor  its  contents  ever  known,  as  the  viceroy  took  care 
to  conceal  them  from  the  people.  In  the  city,  alarm  and  anx- 
iety, hope  and  fear,  pervaded  every  breast,  and  all  supposed 
the  capital  would  be  stormed  ;  the  great  body  of  the  inhabit- 
ants wished  for  the  success  of  the  iudependents,  but  they  dar- 
ed not  express  their  sentiments  or  make  known  their  feelings. 


REVOLUTION    IN    MEXICO.  147 

I 

x\fter  an  anxious  night,  all  were  surprized  the  next  morning  to 
see  the  assailants  retiring.  The  cause  of  this  was  at  the  time 
inexplicable,  nor  has  it  ever  been  fully  explained  ;  but  it  is 
supposed  that  Hidalgo  had  received  information  of  the  defeat 
of  the  patriot  general,  Sanchez,  at  Queretaro,  and  of  the 
junction  of  the  royal  troops,  under  Calleja,  with  the  army  of 
Count  Cadena,  and  that  these  united  armies  were  advancing, 
by  forced  marches,  for  the  relief  of  the  capital.  Some,  how- 
ever, have  attributed  the  retreat  of  the  independents  to  the 
moderation  of  Hidalgo,  and  his  natural  antipathy  and  horror 
at  the  violence  and  devastation  of  war — most  excellent  quali- 
ties for  a  general. 

Hidalgo  retired  in  confusion  to  a  hill,  which  overlooks  the 
village  of  Aculco  and  an  extent  of  country  on  the  north  and 
east.  He  placed  his  cannon  on  the  sides  of  the  hill,  which 
was  of  nearly  a  rectangular  form,  and  drew  up  his  troops  in 
two  lines,  stationing  his  undisciplined  Indians  between  them. 
Here  he  was  attacked,  on  the  7th  of  November,  by  Calleja, 
who  had  previously  reached  the  capital,  with  the  main  part  of 
the  Spanish  army.  The  royalists  advanced  to  the  attack  in 
five  columns  against  the  north  and  east  side  of  Hidalgo's  en- 
campment. There  were  six  thousand  of  the  royal  troops,  dis- 
ciplined veterans,  being  well  armed  and  equipped,  and  ma- 
king a  splendid  martial  appearance,  they  so  frightened  the  In- 
dians that  they  fled  the  instant  the  firing  commenced.  This 
disconcerted  the  regular  troops,  who  making  but  a  feeble  de- 
fence, abandoned  the  position  in  disorder.  They  were  pur- 
sued by  the  royalists  with  great  fury  and  immense  slaughter  ; 
ten  thousand  of  the  independents,  in  the  official  report  of  Cal- 
leja, were  said  to  have  been  killed,  wounded,  and  made  prison- 
ers. The  patriots  retreated  to  the  town  of  Guanaxuato, 
which  is  situated  on  an  eminence  and  fortified  by  a  defile, 
through  which  the  road  passes,  leading  to  the  town.  Here 
they  were  attacked  by  Calleja,  on  the  24th  of  November,  and 
driven  from  their  position,  with  the  loss  of  twenty-five  pieces 
of  their  cannon,  of  which  the  Liberator  was  one.  Some  of 
Hidalgo's  troops,  exasperated  by  the  attack  and  success  of 
the  royalists,  put  to  death  two  hundred  Spanish  prisoners. 
The  royalists,  the  next  day,  stormed  and  took  the  town,  and 
delivered  it  up  to  the  pillage  and  rapacity  of  the  soldiers  .for 
two  hours  ;  and  the  day  following,  as  the  closing  scene  to  this 
tragical  drama,  all  the  officers  who  had  been  taken,  and  many 
other  prisoners  and  citizens,  were  shot.  Among  the  latter, 
were  the  mineralogists,  Chovel,  Davalos  and  Valencia.  A 
proclamation  was  issued  by  the  Spanish  general,  ordering  all 
arms  and  ammunition  to  be  delivered  to  the  government  with- 


148  HISTORY    OF    THE 

in  twenty-four  hours,  on  the  pain  of  death,  and  threatened  all 
with  the  same  punishment  who  supported  the  rebellion,  or  en- 
tertained opinions  favourable  to  it. 

From  Guanaxuato,  Hidalgo  marched  towards  Guadalaxara, 
which  is  four  hundred  and  fifty  miles  from  Mexico  ;  and  dur- 
ing his  route  he  had  numerous  skirmishes  with  parties  of  the 
royal  army,  and  in  many  of  which  the  patriots  were  success- 
ful. Hidalgo  entered  Guadalaxara,  a  populous  town,  con- 
taining at  that  time  ninety  thousand  inhabitants,  and  immedi- 
ately despatched  Mercado,  a  priest,  against  the  port  of  San 
Bias,  which  capitulated,  and  a  large  number  of  cannon  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  patriots,  and  Mercado  sent  forty-two  pieces 
to  Hidalgo,  at  Guadalaxara.  At  this  time,  the  authority  of 
Hidalgo  was  acknowledged  in  the  intendancies  of  Valladolid, 
Zacatecas,  San  Luis  Potosi,  and  part  of  Sonora.  Whilst 
Calleja  was  marching  in  pursuit  of  Hidalgo,  the  royalists,  un- 
der General  Cruz,  defeated  the  independents  at  Zamora, 
which  enabled  him  to  take  the  town  of  Valladolid,  where  a 
scene  of  the  most  dreadful  cruelty  and  bloodshed  was  exhibit- 
ed. Hidalgo  chose  an  advantageous  position,  thirty-three 
miles  from  Guadalaxara,  where  he  encamped  his  army,  which 
was  protected  on  one  side  by  a  hill,  and  on  the  other  by  a 
small  river  ;  the  bridge  across  the  stream  he  fortified,  and 
erected  many  batteries  on  the  summit  of  the  hill,  and  two,  to 
defend  the  army  on  the  left.  In  this  position  Hidalgo  waited 
the  approach  of  Calleja,  and  determined  to  give  him  battle. 
The  royal  general  did  not  decline  the  engagement,  but  as  soon 
as  he  arrived,  made  preparations  for  attacking  the  indepen- 
dents in  their  position.  He  divided  his  army  into  two  col- 
umns, one  of  which  stormed  the  batteries  on  the  hill,  and  took 
them  ;  the  other  column  attacked  the  left  side  of  Hidalgo's 
encampment,  antl  was  repulsed.  But  whilst  retiring  to  its 
first  position,  it  received  a  re-enforcement,  and  engaged  the 
cavalry  of  the  patriots,  who,  perceiving  its  retrograde  move- 
ment, had  attempted  to  surround  it.  Hidalgo  now  made  a 
charge  on  the  royal  cavalry,  who,  being  supported  by  the  gren- 
adiers, repulsed  him  with  great  loss.  Calleja  in  person 
stormed  and  carried  the  battery  which  alone  prevented  his 
pen€trating  into  the  enemy's  camp ;  and  at  the  same  time, 
Emparan  attacked  and  routed  the  cavalry  of  the  independents. 
Consternation  now  spread  through  the  camp  of  the  patriots, 
which  rendered  unavailing  all  further  exertions  to  retrieve  the 
fortune  of  the  day. 

This  defeat  occurred  on  the  seventeenth  of  January,  1811. 
Calleja  sent  General  Cruz  to  re-capture  San  Bias,  which  he 
found  already  in  possession  of  the  Spaniards,  by  means  of  a 


REVOLUTION    IN    MEXICO.  149 

counter  revolution,  brought  about  by  the  curate  of  the  town. 
Having  rallied  the  remnant  of  his  army,  Hidalgo  marched  to  « 
Zacatecas,  where  he  found  a  considerable  quantity  of  cannon, 
there  being  a  brass-foundry   in  the  town.     Here  he  made  a 
new  coinage  of  silver,  still  retaining  the  "  Image  and  super- 
scription" of  Ferdinand  the  Seventh.  The  inependents  march- 
ed to  San  Luis  Potosi,  where  Hidalgo  was  re-enforced  by  sev- 
eral corps  of  guerrillas,  which  he   formed;  and   from  thence 
he  moved  towards  the  town  of  Sal  til  lo,  in  the  military  govern- 
ment of  the  western  internal  provinces,  and  about  six  hundred 
miles  from  Mexico.     Calleja  had  reached  San  Luis  Potosi,  in 
pursuit  of  Hidalgo  ;  a  body  of  royalists  under  Arredondo,  had 
arrived  at  Altamira,  and  the  governor  of  the  western  internal 
provinces,  had  sent  troops  to  hem  in  and  cut  off  the  retreat  of 
Hidalgo.     It  was  his  intention  to  have  escaped  with  such  of 
his    partizans,  as  would  follow  his  fortunes,  to  Louisiana,  in 
the  United  States,   and  to  resume  the  war  for  the  revolution 
of  the  country,   when  more  favourable  circumstances  might 
occur.     The  situation  of  the  popular  chief,    surrouded  with 
enemies  on  all  sides,  was  critical,  and  his  escape  attended  with 
sufficient  hazard,  without  a  Judas  to  betray  him  into  the  hands 
of  his  enemies.     He  was,  however,  destined  to  be  the  victim 
of  treachery.     Don  Y.  Elisondo,  who  commanded  a  body  of 
independent  troops,  had  the  baseness  to  attempt  to  purchase 
a  pardon  for  himself,  by  arresting  Hidalgo  ;  and  having  drawn 
several  officers  into  his  plan,  he  attacked  him  at  Acatita  de 
Bajan,  whilst  pursuing   his  course  unsuspicious   of  danger, 
through  a  friendly  district  of  the  country,  from  which  circum- 
stances, he  was  easily  overcome.     Hidalgo  and  his  followers 
were   made  prisoners,    on  the   twenty-first  of  March,   1811; 
fifty-two   of  them  were  executed  on  the  field  of  action,  the 
next  day  ;  and  ten  more,  including  Hidalgo,  were  sent  to  Chi- 
guagua,  where  they  were  put  to  death  on  the  27th  of  July  fol- 
lowing, Hidalgo  having  first  been  divested  of  his  clerical  or* 

13* 


150  HISTORY   OF   THE 


CHAPTER  IX. 

The  war  continued  by  several  patriot  chiefs- — they  are  attacked  at 
Zitaquaro — they  create  a  junta — surrender  and  massacre  at 
Zitaquaro — success  oj  Morelos — destruction  of  Quautla — Mo- 
relos  is  defeated — massacre  of  prisoners  by  the  royalists — Mo- 
relos convenes  a  congress — they  frame  a  constitution — arrival 
of  Mina — he  penetrates  into  the  country — Apadoca  appointed 
viceroy — attempts  to  conciliate  the  inhabitants — siege  of  Reme- 
dios — capture  and  execution  of  Mina — fall  of  Remedies — civil 
dissentions  among  the  patriots — Gaudalope  Victoria. 

THE  fatal  and  sad  termination  of  the  career  of  Hidalgo  and 
his  associates,  did  not  terminate  the  revolution,  or  discourage 
the  other  chiefs  engaged  in  it ;  which  is  evidence  that  its 
spirit  had  taken  deep  hold  of  the  minds  of  the  people.  The 
most  active  and  powerful  of  the  revolutionary  leaders  who  re- 
mained, were  Don  Y.  Rayon,  a  lawyer,  Don  N.  Villagran,  and 
Don  J.  Morelos,  a  priest.  Rayon  had  taken  a  station  at 
Saltillo,  to  favour  Hidalgo's  retreat  ;  and  on  learning  of  his 
defeat  and  capture,  he  fell  back  on  Zacatecac,  having  in  his 
march  defeated  a  body  of  royalists,  under  Ochoa.  Here  he 
released  three  Spanish  prisoners,  and  sent  them  to  the  vice- 
roy, with  proposals  for  an  accommodation.  His  terms  were, 
that  a  congress  should  be  formed,  consisting  of  half  Spaniards 
and  half  Americans,  to  decide  on  the  best  means  of  putting  an 
end  to  the  war,  and  restoring  tranquillity  to  the  country.  The 
vice-king  returned  no  other  answer,  but  that,  if  he  would  lay 
down  his  arms,  he  should  be  included  in  the  general  indulto, 
or  amnesty,  which  the  cortes  had  granted  in  1810.  This  act 
of  the  cortes,  promised  a  total  oblivion  of  all  that  had  taken 
place  during  the  revolution,  to  all  who  should  lay  down  their 
arms,  and  desist  from  aiding  the  rebellion.  But  this  act  of  ob- 
livion had  been  so  totally  disregarded  by  the  Spanish  chiefs 
in  America,  and  only  used  by  them  as  a  snare,  to  entrap 
those  they  wished  to  destroy,  that  instead  of  conciliating  the 
disaffected,  it  had  tended  to  inflame  their  minds  against  a  gov- 
ernment, which  could  be  guilty  of  such  base  duplicity  and 
treachery.  In  Mexico,  so  entirely  destitute  were  the  people 
ef  any  confidence  in  the  faith  or  promises  of  the  viceroy,  thaf 


REVOLUTION  IN  MEXICO.  151 

he  was  obliged  to  get  the  church,  or  cabildo  eclesiastico,  to  en- 
dorse his  proclamation,  and  to  attempt  to  persuade  the  people 
that  his  promises  were  not  designed  to  ensnare  them. 

"  On  this  account,"  says  the  cabildo  ecclesiastico,  in  a  pas- 
toral charge  addressed  to  the  clergy,  on  the  17th  of  May,  1812, 
"  his  excellency  the  viceroy,  the  worthy  and  legitimate  repre- 
sentative of  our  catholic  and  most  Christian  King  Ferdinand 
the  Seventh,  has  had  the  unparalleled  goodness,  not  only  to 
authorize  us  to  be  the  guarantees  and  trustees  of  the  indulto 
or  general  pardon  granted  to  the  insurgents,  but  also  to  per- 
mit us  to  grant  to  you  likewise  the  power,  reverend  brethren, 
as  by  these  presents  we  do,  to  offer,  promise,  and  assure,  in 
the  name  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost, 
and  in  the  name  of  the  Virgin  of  Gaudalupe,  protectress  of  this 
kingdom,  and  in  the  name  of  the  Christian  and  Catholic  king 
Ferdinand  the  VII.  and  of  his  viceroy  in  these  kingdoms,  that 
a  general  pardon  shall  be  duly  granted  to  all  those  who,  re- 
penting themselves  of  their  past  faults,  are  now  willing  to  lay 
down  their  arms,"  &c. 

Rayon,  being  pursued  by  Calleja,  retreated  into  the  Inten- 
dancy  of  Valladolid  ;  and  the  patriot  colonel  Lopez  at  the  head 
of  a  party  of  guerrillas,  fortified  the  town  of  Zitaquaro,  where 
he  was  attacked  on  the  22d  of  May,  1811,  by  a  body  of 
royalists,  under  Torre  and  Mora,  who  were  repulsed  with  loss, 
and  the  two  commanders  slain.  This  victory  encouraged  the 
independents  to  act  on  the  offensive,  and  Lopez  marched 
against  Valladolid,  and  attacked  the  place  on  the  4th  of  May  ; 
but  was  repulsed  by  Truxillo,  who  commanded  the  royalists 
in  that  place.  Rayon  joined  Lopez,  and  established  his  head- 
quarters at  Zitaquaro,  where  he  was  attacked  by  the  Spanigh 
general  Emparan,  on  the  30th  of  June.  The  conflict  was  ex- 
tremely sharp  and  bloody,  and  resulted  in  the  complete  route 
of  the  royalists,  with  the  loss  of  eight  hundred  men  and  all  their 
baggage.  Emparan  retired  with  the  remnant  of  his  forces  to 
Toluca,  and  the  patriots  elated  with  the  victory,  again  attack- 
ed Valladolid  on  the  23d  of  July,  but  with  no  better  success 
than  before. 

The  cause  of  the  revolution  was  now  evidently  gaining 
ground ;  and  it  was  supposed,  that  a  plan  for  a  general  revolt 
throughout  Mexico,  was  matured  and  would  soon  take  place  ; 
the  viceroy  received  many  threats  and  denunciations.  Nu- 
merous persons  were  arrested,  accused  of  being  concerned  in 
the  conspiracy,  a  part  of 'whom  were  brought  to  trial;  six 
were  condemned  and  sentenced  to  be  executed,  and  six  others 
sentenced  to  hard  labour  at  Puerto  Rico  ;  two  women  were 
among  the  number  found  guilty  ©f  conspiring  against  the  gov- 


152  HISTORY  OP  THE 

eminent,  and  condemned  to  imprisonment  for  a  term  of  time. 
These  condemnations  took  place  in  the  month  of  August.  At 
this  period  Rayon  established  a  junta  for  the  government  of 
the  country  consisting  of  himself,  Doctor  Berdusco,  and  Don 
J.  M.  Licaga,  which,  nominally  at  least  acknowledged  the 
authority  of  Ferdinand,  and  published  their  acts  in  his  name. 
Calleja,  the  moment  he  received  intelligence  of  the  creation 
of  this  junta,  at  Guanaxuato,  his  head-quarters,  issued  a  proc- 
lamation offering  ten  thousand  dollars  each,  for  the  heads  of 
the  junta  ;  and  the  viceroy,  greatly  alarmed  at  this  measure, 
and  regarding  it  as  the  harbinger  of  a  general  rising  of  the 
people,  ordered  Calleja  to  make  an  immediate  attack  upon  the 
insurgents. at  Zitaquaro.  This  town  is  one  hundred  and  twen- 
ty miles  from  Mexico,  situated  in  a  valley,  and  surrounded  by 
high  mountains.  It  contained  ten  thousand  inhabitants,  arid 
the  principal  object  in  attacking  it,  was  to  seize  the  members 
of  the  junta.  For  this  purpose,  Calleja  ordered  Polier,  com- 
manding at  Toluca,  to  drive  the  independents  from  their  posi- 
tion on  the  Tenango  mountain,  previous  to  his  attack  on  Zita- 
quaro, to  cut  off  their  retreat.  Calleja  attacked  Zitaquaro,  on 
the  second  of  January  1812,  and  the  place  being  strong  by  na- 
ture, and  well  fortified,  made  a  resolute  defence,  but  was  ta- 
ken by  the  royalists  after  three  hours  of  hard  fighting. 

"  The  rebels,"  says  Calleja  in  his  official  account  of  the  ac- 
tion, "  had  added  to  that  state  of  natural  fortification  in  which 
Zitaquaro  was  placed,  all  that  art,  despair,  and  eight  months 
continued  labour  could  contribute.  The  defeat  of  the  two 
preceding  expeditions  had  so  much  encouraged  the  people, 
that  even  women  and  children  now  united  in  repelling  our  at- 
tack. All,  however,  has  yielded  to  the  intrepidity  of  the  army 
under  my  command. 

"  The  enemy  being  completely  routed,  fled  away  in  every 
direction,  leaving  the  surrounding  country  covered  with  their 
dead  and  wounded.  The  rebels,  cabecillas,  Rayon,  Liceaga, 
and  Berdusco,  had  previously  made  their  escape,  and  taken 
the  road  towards  rl  asco ;  nor  has  it  been  in  my  power  to 
pursue  them,  my  troops  being  already  exhausted  with  fatigue, 
and  the  roads  in  a  very  bad  state. 

"  The  quantity  of  military  stores  is  immense  which  we 
found  in  the  town.  I  will  send  your  excellency  an  exact  list  of 
them  as  well  as  of  the  cannon  which  we  took  from  the  enemy. 
I  now  merely  confine  myself  to  that  information  more  imme- 
diately necessary  to  convey  to  your  excellency,  that  it  is  owing 
to  the  valour  and  exertions  of  my  officers  as  well  as  of  my 
men,  that  the  engagement  was  so  short.  Their  good  conduct 
in  this  attack  has  exceeded  even  what  they  have  display- 


REVOLUTION    IN    MEXICO.  153 

cd  on  former  occasion^,  and  our  loss  has  betin  inconsidera- 
ble. 

"  My  stay  here  will  be  as  short  as  possible,  and  before  my 
departure  I  will  erase  every  vestige  of  the  town  from  the  face 
of  the  earth,  that  I  may,  by  this  means,  punish  the  criminal  in- 
stigators of  so  barbarous,  impolitic,  and  destructive  an  insur- 
rection, and  give  an  example  of  terror  to  those  who  might 
otherwise  be  willing  to  support  it." 

The  contest  had  now  assumed  a  character  peculiarly  savage 
and  horrible ;  the  war  was  not  only  a  war  of  death,  but  of 
desolation.  Vengeance,  blood  and  destruction  seem  to  have 
filled  the  minds  of  the  royal  chiefs,  who  were  as  weak  as  they 
were  destitue  of  every  sentiment  of  justice  or  humanity,  in 
supposing  that  "  examples  of  terror,"  and  destruction,  would 
restore  tranquillity  to  a  distracted  country.  After  the  capture 
of  Zitaquaro,  Calleja  published  a  decree,*  depriving  the  In- 
dians of  that  department,  of  their  property  and  immuni- 
ties, declaring  the  property  of  all  Americans  who  had  ta- 
ken any  part  in  the  ^insurrection,  or  who  fled  from  the  city 
on  the  entry  of  the  royal  troops,  to  be  forfeited  ;  trans- 
ferring the  capital  of  the  department  to  Marabatio,  and  or- 
dering the  town  of  Zitaquaro  razed  to  the  ground,  allowing 
the  inhabitants  six  days  only  to  leave  it,  with  their  moveables, 
which  they  were  permitted  to  take  "  as  a  proof  of  mercy  ;" 
and  threatening  the  same  destruction  against  any  town  which 
should  harbour  either  of  the  members  of  the  junta.  The 
scene  of  horror  and  distress,  which  this  decree,  conceived  in 
the  true  spirit  of  Vandalism,  produced,  surpassed  the  power 
of  imagination,  much  more  that  of  description. 

The  fall  of  Zitaquaro  and  the  dispersion  of  the  patriots,  did 

*  The  following  are  some  of  the  articles  of  the  decree  referred 
to  : — 

"  1st.  It  is  decreed  that  the  Indians  of  Zitaquaro  and  its  depart" 
ment,  shall  be  deprived  of  their  property,  as  well  as  of  those  immu- 
nities and  privileges  which  the  extreme  beneficence  of  the  govern- 
ment had  granted  them 

"  2d.  This  forfeited  property,  as  well  as  that  of  those  South  Amer- 
icans who  have  taken  part  in  the  insurrection,  who  accommpanied 
the  rebels  in  their  flight,  or  who  left  the  city  at  the  entrance  of  the 
king's  troops,  to  be  placed  in  the  public  treasury. 

"3d.  Monarchical  government  being  hated  by  the  inhabitants  of 
this  criminal  town,  who  have  supported  three  engagements  against 
the  king's  forces,  and  having  found  the  heads  of  many  of  our  chiefs 
who  sacrificed  their  lives  for  (he  public  good,  placed  on  poles  at  the 
entrance  of  the  town,  we  decree  that  every  building  in  Zitaquaro 
shall  be  razed  to  the  ground,  or  destroyed  by  fire.  Every  inhabit- 
ant to  leave  the  town  within  six  days  ;  atid  as  a  proof  of  mercy,  1 
permit  them  to  take  their  moveable  propertv, 

"CALLEJA.'1 


154  HISTORY  OF  THE 

not  terminate  the  struggle  :  nor  did  the,  dreadful  examples  of 
terror,  induce  the  independent  chiefs,  to  throw  down  their 
arms  and  sue  for  peace  and  pardon.  Morelos,  Villagran,  Ca- 
nas,  Aldamar,  and  other  popular  leaders,  still  commanded 
corps  of  guerrillas  in  different  parts  of  New  Spain.  The 
members  of  the  junta,  took  refuge  at  Zultepec,  a  town 
situated  on  a  steep  mountain,  about  ninety  miles  from  Mex- 
ico ;  from  whence  they  proposed  to  the  viceroy  terms  of 
accommodation,  which  received  as  little  attention  as  the  pro- 
posals of  Hidalgo  and  Rayon.  The  terms  of  reconciliation 
were  contained  in  an  address  of  the  junta  to  the  Spaniards,  of 
the  29th  of  March  18 11,  in  which  they  recapitulated  their 
grievances,  and  proposed  a  plan,  in  case  the  royalists  did  not 
choose  to  comply  with  their  terms  of  accommodation,  for 
carrying  on  the  war,  in  a  manner  less  barbarous  and  destruc- 
tive. 

Morelos  possessed  an  efficient  army,  and  was  obeyed 
throughout  nearly  the  entire  southern  coast  of  Mexico.  He  had 
defeated  the  royalists  in  various  skirmishes  and  engagemeris, 
one  of  which  was  bloody  and  decisive,  fought  on  the  19th  of 
August,  1811,  at  Tixtla  ;  after  which,  he  besieged  Acapulco, 
with  a  small  part  of  his  army,  but  marched  with  the  main  divis- 
ion towards  Mexico.  He  took  possession  of  the  town  of  Izucar 
without  opposition  ;  and,  in  the  meantime,  a  division  of  his 
army  commanded  by  general  Bravo,  defeated  the  Spanish 
general  Musitu,  and  took  possession  of  the  town  of  Quautla 
Amilpas,  seventy-live  miles  south  of  the  capital.  Morelos  also 
occupied  the  towns  of  Huexapan,  and  Tasco.  The  Span-  . 
ish  colonel  Soto,  attacked  the  town  of  Izucar  on  the  17th 
February,  but  was  repulsed  with  loss,  and  himself  so  dan- 
gerously wounded,  that  he  was  obliged  to  retire  from  the  com- 
mand. He  was  succeeded  by  Llano,  who  on  the  22d  renewed 
the  assault,  and  was  also  repulsed  ;  yet  he  succeeded  in  gain- 
ing possession  of  a  hill,  from  which- he  bombarded  the  town. 
In  this  attack  were  employed  the  first  troops  which  had  been 
sent  from  Spain  to  Mexico,  since  the  commencement  of  the 
revolution.  Calleja  attacked  Moreios  in  the  town  of  Quautla 
Amilpas,  on  the  19th  of  February,  1811,  and  after  a  severe 
action  of  six  hours,  was  compelled  to  retire.  Exasperated  at 
this  defeat,  Calleja,  swore  vengeance  against  the  town  of 
Quautla  and  its  inhabitants,  and  made  great  preparations  for 
renewing  the  assault.  Llano  was  ordered  to  raise  the  siege  of 
Izucar  and  join  him,  who  on  his  marcn  defeated  several  par- 
ties of  guerrillas.  In  the  meantime,  the  patriots,  who  had 
been  re-enforced,  assisted  by  the  whole  population  of  the 
town,  were  making  the  utmost  exertions  for  its  defence.  The 


REVOLUTION  IN  MEXICO.  155 

rage  of  the  Spanish  general,  is  in  some  degree  evinced  by  a 
letter  which  he  wrote  to  a  friend  whilst  encamped  before 
Quautlaonthe  15th  of  March,  1812. 

"  We  will  precipitate  this  town  and  its  inhabitants  into  the 
very  centre  of  hell,  whatever  exertions  or  fatigue  it  may  cost 
us.  The  enthusiasm  of  these  insurgents  is  unparalleled. 
Morelos,  with  a  prophetic  countenance,  gives  his  orders,  and 
whatever  they  may  be,  they  are  always  punctually  executed. 
We  continually  hear  the  inhabitants  swear  that  they  will  be 
buried  under  the  ruins  rather  than  deliver  up  the  town.  They 
dance  around  the  bombs  as  they  fall,  to  prove  that  they  are 
fearless  of  danger." 

The  town  of  Quautla  is  situated  on  an  eminence,  in  a  plain, 
and  commands  a  view  of  the  adjacent  country.     It  had  been 
so  strongly  fortified  by  Morelos,  that  Calleja  was  obliged  to 
relinquish  the  plan  of  conquering  it  by  storm,  and  to  attempt 
to  reduce  it  by  a  siege.     This  having  been  continued  for  some 
time,  provisions  began  to  fail,  which  induced  Morelos  to  make 
a  sally,  from  the  hope,  that  this  might  enable  the  parties  of 
guerrillas,  which   were  harassing  the  besiegers  in  the  rear,  to 
convey  provisions  into  the  town.     On  the  night  of  the  23d  of 
April,  field-marshal  Matamoros,  with  one  hundred  horse,  forc- 
ed the  enemy's  line,  but  no  supplies  were  procured  by  the 
movement.    The  town  not  being  able  to  hold  out  much  longer, 
for  the  want  of  provisions,  as  a  last  effort,  Morelos  attacked 
the  enemy's  camp  on  the  27th,  aided  by  the  guerrillas  ;  but 
the  patriots  were  repulsed,  with  the  loss  of  nearly  one  thousand 
men.       After   the    siege  had  lasted    seventy-five  days,   the 
precise  time  of  that  of  Mexico,  when  taken  by  Cortes,  and 
all  hopes  of  obtaining  provisions,  being  extinguished,  Morelos 
resolved  to  evacuate  the  place,  and  on  the  night  of  the  2d  of 
May,  1811,  the  Independents  marched  out  of  the  town,  toge- 
ther with  most  of  its  inhabitants.     A  corps  of  two  thousand 
infantry  formed  the  advance,  next  two  hundred  and  fifty  horse- 
men, followed  by  nearly  five  thousand  lancers  andsliugers,  be- 
tween whom,  and  the  rear  guard  which  consisted  of  a  corps 
of  fusileers,  was  placed  the  inhabitants,  comprising  nearly  the 
entire  population  of  the  town.     Calleja  soon  discovered  the 
movement  of  the  Independents,  and  commenced  a  spirited  at- 
tack upon  them,  which  occasioned  a  most  shocking  slaughter 
among  the  unarmed,  and  in  a  great  degree,  unprotected  inhab- 
itants, who  were  fleeing  for  their  safety.     Four  thousand  of 
the  patriots  were  slain,  principally  the  unfortunate  inhabitants 
of  Quautla.     Calleja,  in  his^account  of  the  slaughter,  says, 
that  the  dead  bodies  of  the  enemy  covered  the  ground  for 
twenty  miles  in  extent,  and  that  he  lost  only  twenty  men. 


156  HISTORY  OP  THE 

Morelos  retreated  to  the  town  of  Chilapa,  which  he  took  by 
storm ;  Tehuacan  next  yielded  to  him,  arid  Orizaba  shared 
the  same  fate.  Here  he  set  fire  to  the  tobacco  in  the  royal 
magazines,  of  the  value  of  several  millions  of  dollars.  On 
the  25th  of  November,  Morelos  attacked  and  captured  the 
town  of  Antequera,  the  capital  of  the  Intendancy  of  Oaxaca, 
where  the  patriot-officers,  Palacios,  Tinoco,  Lopez  and  Ar- 
menta  had  been  shot  by  the  royalists.  Morelos  resolved  to 
retaliate,  and  executed,  on  the  spot,  lieutenant-general  Gon- 
zeles  Saravier,  brigadier-general  Bonavia,  and  two  colonels,  of 
the  Spanish  prisoners  in  his  possession.  The  remains  of  Lo- 
pez and  Armenta,  were  then  disinterred,  conveyed  in  triumph 
and  deposited  in  the  cathedral.  Morelos  soon  after  captured 
Acapulco,  and  a  numerous  corps  of  guerrillas  under  Guadalupe 
Victoria,  stationed  at  different  positions  between  Xalapa  and 
Vera  Cruz,  cut  off  the  communication  between  the  latter 
place  and  the  capital. 

Rayon  having  made  an  unsuccessful  attack  on  Toluca,  re- 
treated to  Tenango,  fifty-four  miles  south-west  of  Mexico,  sit- 
uated on  a  mountain,  from  which,  in  the  beginning  of  June 
1812,  he  was  driven  by  the  royalists,  who  succeeded  in  avoid- 
ing the  batteries  tbat  defended  the  ascent  to  the  town.  All 
the  prisoners,  taken  by  the  Spaniards,  were  shot.  The  nation- 
al junta,  which  had  taken  refuge  in  the  town  of  Zultepec,  with- 
drew from  that  place,  and  either  accompanied  the  army  under 
Rayon,  or  remained  in  towns,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  it,  and 
to  which  it.  afforded  protection.  Near  the  close  of  the  year 
1812,  Don  .1.  M.  A.  Toledo,  who  had  been  a  member  of  the 
cortes  in  Spain  for  Mexico,  arrived  in  the  United  States,  and 
in  conjunction  with  Don  B.  Gutierrez,  then  at  Washington,  in 
the  capacity  of  commissioner,  or  agent,  from  the  new  govern- 
ment in  Mexico,  to  the  government  of  the  United  States,  form- 
ed a  plan  for  invading  the  eastern  provinces  of  New  Spain, 
from  the  United  States.  They  engaged  some  citizens  of  the 
United  States  to  join  the  expedition,  and  set  out  for  the  Pro- 
mncias  Interns :  and  having  entered  the  Spanish  territories, 
were  re-enforced  by  some  guerrillas  ;  they  obtained  some  ad- 
vantages over  the  royalists,  and  took  San  Antonio  de  Bejar, 
the  capital  of  the  Province  of  Texas.  But  they  were  attack- 
ed in  January,  1813,  and  completely  dispersed  by  Don  N.  Ar- 
redondy,  military  commander  of  the  internal  provinces.  To- 
ledo made  his  escape  to  the  United  States.  An  attack  was 
made  by  Morelos  on  Valladolid  in  December,  1813  ;  but  the 
royalists  being  re-enforced  by  a  body  of  troops  under  Llano, 
the  independents  were  defeated,  and  retreated  to  Pascuaro, 
whither  the  royalists  pursued  them,  and  an  engagement  took 


REVOLUTION    IN  MEXICO.  157 

^)ace  on  the  7th  of  January,  1814.  The  battle  having  com- 
menced before  the  dawn  of  light  in  the  morning,  unfortunate- 
ly two  divisions  of  Morelos'  troops  fought  each  other  until  the 
appearance  of  light  discovered  to  them  the  fatal  mistake, 
which  paralized  all  their  efforts,  and  rendered  them  an  easy 
conquest  to  the  enemy.  Matamoros,  Morelos'  lieutenant,  a 
very  active  and  brave  officer,  and  seven  hundred  men  were 
made  prisoners.  Morelos  made  every  effort  to  save  Mata- 
jmoros,  and  offered  to  exchange  for  him,  and  his  staff,  five  hun- 
dred Spaniards  which  Matamoros  had  himself  taken  a  short 
time  before.  But  the  blood-thirsty  royalist  general  dSclined 
this  offer  ;  and  immediately  ordered  Matamoros  and  the  seven 
hundred  prisoners  shot,  which  he  must  have  known  would  ex- 
pose the  lives  of  the  Spanish  prisoners,  in  the  possession  of 
the  patriots,  at  Acapulco,  whom  Morelos  by  way  of  retaliation 
put  to  death. 

The  Spaniards  at  this  time  had  a  powerful  force  ;  the  royal 
army  consisted  of  four  strong  divisions,  and  from  the  vigorous 
conduct  of  Calleja,  who  was  now  appointed  viceroy,  they  drove 
the  revolutionists  from  the  principal  part  of  the  country.  More- 
los, Rayon,  Doctor  Cos,  and  some  others  of  the  patriot  chiefs, 
however,  kept  the  field  and  occupied  a  considerable  part  of  the 
provinces  of  Guanaxuato,  Valladolid  and  Zacatecas  ;  Licaga. 
fortified  a  position  on  the  Lake  Chapala,  where  he  repulsed  the 
loyalists  in  several  attacks  made  to  dislodge  him. 

In  hopes  to  revive  the  spirits  of  the  inhabitants,  Morelos  call- 
ed a  congress,  consisting  of  forty  members,  which  opened  its 
session  at  Chilpanzingo,  ninety  miles  south  of  Mexico,  and 
"was  afterwards  removed  to  Ario,  about  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
five  miles  from  the  capital,  where  it  declared  Mexico  inde- 
pendent, and  constituted  a  triplicate  executive,  consisting  of 
Morelos,  Licaga  and  Cos.  From  thence  the  congress  was 
transferred  to  Apatzingan,  in  the  province  of  Valladolid. — 
There,  on  the  23d  of  October,  1814,  they  offered  to  the  peo- 
ple a  democratic  constitution,  and  on  the  25th,  issued  a  de- 
cree prescribing  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  all  who  were  to  en- 
joy the  benefits  of  the  new  government.  These  proceedings 
increased  the  rage  of  the  royal  governors,  and  the  constitution 
and  decree  were  publicly  burned  at  Mexico  on  the  25th  of 
May  following,  and  the  punishment  of  death  denounced  against 
all  who  should  retain  in  their  possession  any  copies  of  the  con- 
stitution, or  refuse  to  deliver  them  to  the  government.  Mo 
yelos  found  that  the  establishment  of  a  congress,  and  the  re- 
signation of  his  power  to  it,  instead  of  promoting,  injured  the 
cause,  and  greatly  embarrassed  his  operations.  When  he,  or 
any  of  the  generals,  proposed  any  military  plan  of  action,  the 

VOL.  I.  14 


158  HISTORY    OF   THE 

long  discussion  which  it  must  undergo  in  the  congress,  not  on^ 
ly  occasioned  delay,  but  often  defeated  the  object,  and  finally 
led  to  mutual  jealousy  and  distrust  between  the  civil  and  mili- 
tary authorities. 

Many  privateers  were  fitted  out  under  the  authority  of  the 
new  government,  which  supplied  the  armies  of  the  patriots  with 
arms  and  ammunition,  through  the  port  of  Boquilla  de  Piedra, 
in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Being  no  longer  able  to  maintain  him- 
self in  the  Intendency  of  Valladolid,  and  receiving  intelligence 
that  Toledo  and  General  Humbert  had  arrived  with  arms  and 
ammunition  at  Elpuente  del  Rey,  situated  between  Xalapa  and 
Vera  Cruz,  and  which  was  fortified  by  the  Independents,  Mo- 
relos  determined  to  retire  into  that  province,  and  the  congress 
and  a  large  portion  of  the  inhabitants  resolved  to  accompany 
him. 

The  expedition  had  more  the  appearance  of  a  large  caravan, 
or  the  migratory  incursions  of  those  nations  of  the  north  of  Eu- 
rope, which  overran  the  Roman  Empire,  than  that  of  a  regular 
army  on  its  march.  The  royalists  pursued  and  hovered  round 
this  vast  multitude,  armed  and  unarmed,  but  made  no  general 
attack.  Morelos  had  separated  himself  from  the  main  army, 
to  cover  the  retreat,  and  with  a  body  of  cavalry  lay  at  a  place 
called  Tepecuacilco,  of  which,  the  royalists  obtaining  informa- 
tion by  their  spies,  attacked  him  by  surprise,  and  after  a  short 
conflict  he  \vas  defeated  and  made  prisoner  on  the  5th  of  No- 
vember, 1815.  Morelos  was  carried' to  Mexico,  deprived  of 
his  clerical  orders,  accused  of  heresy,  but  acquitted  of  that 
charge  by  the  Inquisition.  On  the  22d  of  December,  he  was 
shot  in  the  back  as  a  traitor,  in  the  village  of  ban  Christobal, 
eighteen  miles  from  the  capital,  the  viceroy  not  daring  to  ex- 
ecute the  sentence  in  the  city,  for  fear  it  would  excite  the  peo- 
ple to  rise. 

The  congress  convened  at  the' city  of  Tehaucan,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Puebla,  where  Teran,  an  independent  officer,  com- 
manded a  considerable  body  of  troops.  Here,  oh  the  17th  of 
November,  they  sent  to  Calleja  a  despatch,  imploring  him  t© 
spare  the  valuable  life  of  Morelos,  which  he  did  not  conde- 
scend to  answer.  The  loss  of  Morelos  was  irreparable  ;  the 
congress  had  great  difficulty  in  supplying  his  place  as  a  mem- 
ber, and  president  of  the  executive  department ;  the  place 
was  demanded  by  Teran,  whom  the  congress  did  not  seem  dis- 
posed to  appoint,  and  serious  disputes  arose.  Teran  being 
provoked,  and  taking  advantage  of  the  existing  disputes,  dis- 
solved the  congress  by  force,  in  December,  which  arbitrary 
act  proved  very  fatal  to  the  cause  of  the  patriots.  There  was 
na  longer  any  national  authority,  unity  of  power,  or  concert  «f 


REVOLUTION    IN    MEXICO.  159 

action  ;  but  the  military  officers  in  the  different  provinces  act- 
ed as  independent  chiefs,  and  the  war  languished  until  the  ar- 
rival of  General  Mina,  in  the  autumn  of  1816.  Mina  was  a  ne- 
phew of  the  celebrated  general  of  that  name,  so  distinguished 
for  his  patriotic  devotion  to  his  country,  and  the  constitutional 
cause  in  Spain,  and  the  long  and  successful  resistance  he  made 
against  the  French  and  the  Spanish  royalists.  He  sailed  from 
Liverpool  with  a  small  expedition,  in  May,  1816,  having  seven 
thousand  stand  of  arms,  and  equipages  for  two  thousand  in- 
fantry and  five  hundred  cavalry,  and  arrived  in  the  United  States 
in  June.  Here,  obtaining  some  officers,  and  additional  mus- 
kets, and  receiving  some  pecuniary  aid  from  Baltimore  and 
New-Orleans,  to  help  out  the  expedition,  he  sailed  for  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  Having  suffered  much  in  the  passage  from 
unfavourable  weather  and  disease,  he  landed  at  Galvestown  in 
November,  where  he  was  joined  by  Aury,  the  commander  of 
the  privateers  in  that  quarter,  and  by  some  of  the  inhabitants. 
Hastily  organizing  his  forces,  he  proceeded  to  Soto  la  Marina, 
and  entered  the  place  without  opposition.  Here  he  construct- 
ed a  fort,  and  left  a  small  garrison  for  the  protection  of  his  mili- 
tary stores,  and  on  the  24th  of  May;  commenced  his  march  for 
the  interior  of  the  country. 

At  this  time  the  revolution  was  at  the  lowest  ebb,  and  little 
or  no  resistance  was  openly  made  to  the  Spanish  government, 
except  in  the  internal  provinces ;  there  were,  however,  some 
guerrillas,  in  other  parts,  that  kept  the  field.  Calleja  had 
been  succeeded,  as  viceroy,  by  Don  Juan  R.  de  Apadoca  ;  and 
the  new  viceroy  departed  from  the  policy  of  his  predecessors, 
who  had  attempted  to  govern,  solely  by  fear  and  terror.  Sen- 
'sible  that  the  cruel  and  bloody  career  of  Calleja  was  not  cal- 
culated to  restore  tranquillity  to  a  distracted  country,  where 
all  was  war  and  desolation,  he  resolved  to  try  a  different  line 
of  conduct,  and  attempt  to'conciliate  the  affections  of  the  in- 
habitants, and  to  regain  their  confidence.  This  conciliatory 
policy  was  attended  with  great  success,  and  almost  put  an  end 
to  the  revolution,  in  the  capital  and  that  part  of  Mexico.  But 
the  spirit  of  independence  was  suppressed,  not  extinguished, 
and  it  was  renewed  by  the  invasion  of  the  country  by  Mina. 
When  he  commenced  his  march,  his  whole  force,  including 
officers,  was  three  hundred  and  eight  men  ;  with  which  he  en- 
countered a  body  of  the  enemy  on  the  8th  of  June,  1817,  near 
Valle  del  Mais,  routed  them,  and  entered  the  town.  He  made 
no  stay,  but  continued  his  march  with  great  expedition,  being 
desirous  to  unite  with  the  independents  in  the  interior,  and  on 
the  14th  of  June  he  encamped  at  the  hacienda  Peotillas. 
Here  he  was  attacked  by  a  force  greatly  superior,  but  his  he-, 


160  HISTORY   OP    THE 

roic  band,  few  in  number,  but  brave  in  spirit,  directed  and  en- 
couraged by  their  gallant  leader,  not  only  defended  themselves, 
but  compelled  the  enemy  to  abandon  the  field  with  a  heavj~ 
loss.  In  this  action  Mina  proved  himself  to  be  a  brave  and 
skilful  officer,  and  acquired  the  highest  confidence  of  his  fol- 
lowers. Continuing  his  march,  on  the  18th  he  stormed  and 
took  the  town  of  Real  del  Pinos,  although  defended  by  a  gar- 
rison exceeding  his  own  force  ;  and  on  the  24th  of  June  he 
reached  Sombrero,  where  he  found  the  forces  of  the  independ- 
ents, having  marched  six  hundred  and  sixty  miles  in  thirty-two 
days.  His  troops  had  endured  the  greatest  fatigue,  and  almost 
every  hardship  and  privation  ;  but  being  animated  by  their 
commander,  young,  gallant  and  popular,  who  shared  himself 
in  all  their  sufferings  and  wants,  no  murmurs  or  complaints 
were  heard.  When  Mina  arrived  at  Sombrero,  he  had  two 
hundred  and  sixty-nine  men,  rank  and  file.  Here  he  wrote  to 
the  junta  which  had  been  established,  acquainting  them  with 
his  object  in  invading  the^  country,  and  offering  his  services  in 
the  cause  of  independence  ;  he  also  wrote  to  Padre  de  Torres,, 
who  was  regarded  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  patriots. 

Mina  learnt  that  a  body  of  royalists,  amounting  to  seven  hun- 
dred, were  in  the  vicinity,  and  leaving  the  fort  under  the  com- 
mand of  Don  Pedro  Moreno,  he  marched  in  conjunction  witli 
a  guerrilla,  commanded  by  Ortis,  of  one  hundred  men,  to  meet 
the  enemy.  His  whole  force  amounted  to  four  hundred  men. 
with  which  he  did  not  hesitate  to  engage  the  royalists,  drawn 
up  at  the  hacienda,  de  los  Llanos.  So  spirited  and  vigorous 
was  the  charge  of  the  independents,  led  on  by  Mina,  that  the 
enemy  yielded  before  them  and  fled  in  disorder,  with  the  loss 
of  half  their  number  left  on  the  field.  After  the  troops  were 
refreshed  by  a  few  days  repose  at  Sombrero,  Mina  and  Moreno 
penetrated  as  far  as  Xaral,  sixty  miles  from  Guanaxuato,  and 
surprised  and  took  the  place,  in  which  they  found  immense 
booty. 

On  his  return  to  Sombrero,  Mina  received  intelligence  of 
the  surrender  of  Soto  la  Marina  to  the  royalists,  commanded 
by  Arredondo,  governor  of  the  internal  provinces  Following 
up  their  success,  the  Spaniards  invested  Sombrero.  -The  pa- 
triots made  an  obstinate  defence  ;  but  it  being  evident  the' 
place  could  not  hold  out  much  longer,  Mina  left  the  fort  and 
proceeded  to  general  Torres,  in  hopes  of  obtaining  some 
troops  for  the  relief  of  the  besieged,  in  which  he  did  not  suc- 
ceed. A  few  days  after  he  left  the  place,  the  patriots  were 
compelled  to  evacuate  it,  and  had  no  other  means  of  escape 
but  by  cutting  their  way  through  the  lines  of  the  enemy.  Fif- 
ty only  survived  who  joined  their  leader  at  Los  Remedies,  the 


REVOLUTION    IN   MEXICO.  161 

head-qiterters  of  general  Torres.     The  royalists  under  gener- 
al Linan,  marched  against  Remedies  and  invested  the  place 
on  the  31st  of  August,  which  was  defended  by  Torres,  assist* 
ed  by  some  of  Mina's  officers  :  Mina,  at  the  head  of  a  body  of 
cavalry,  marched  towards  Guanaxuato,  and  captured  the  haci- 
enda of  Biscocho,  and  the  town  of  San  Luis  la  Paz.     He  also 
advanced  against  the  town  of  San  Miguel  le  Grande,  and  com- 
menced an  attack  upon  it,  but  retired  on  receiving  informa- 
tion that  a  strong  force  of  the  enemy  was  marching  to  the  re- 
lief of  the   place.     He   retreated  to  the  valle  de  Santiago, 
where  he  was  joined  by  many  patriots,  so  that  he  soon  was  at 
the  head  of  one  thousand  Cavalry.     With  this  force,  Mina 
set  out  for  the  relief  of  Remedios,  but  learning  that  the  be- 
siegers were  stronger  than  he  had  supposed,  he  deemed  his 
force  insufficient  for  the  purpose,  and  retired  to  the  mountains 
near  Guanaxuato,  being  pursued  by  Orrantia.     The  Spaniards 
carried  on  the  siege  of  Remedies  with  great  vigour  ;  yet  Mi- 
na continually  harassed  them  with  his  cavalry  and  cut  off  their 
supplies.     But  at  length  he  was  attacked  by  Orrantia  at  the 
hacienda  of  La  Caxa,  and  defeated  with  a  heavy  loss.     He  re- 
tired to  a  small  town  called  New  Publa,  twelve  miles  from  the 
scene  of  action,  and  attempted  to  rally  the  fugitives,  who  had 
escape'd,  but  with  little  success,  as  most  of  them  returned  to 
their  homes.     In  this  forlorn  condition  he  proceeded  to  Xaux- 
illa,  to  obtain  from  the  government  of  the  independents,  which 
was  then  fixed  at  that  place,  some  troops  to  resume  his  mili- 
tary operations.     He  proposed  attacking  Guanaxuato  ;  and  af- 
ter considerable  opposition  to  his  plan  it  was  agreed  to,  and 
he  was  supplied  with  a  small  body  of  troops.     With  this  force 
he  marched  to  the  valle  de  Santiago,  where  he  was  re-enforc- 
ed by   a  few  men  from  Xalapa,  waiting  to  join  him  ;  but  the 
approach  of  a  detachment  of  royalists  compelled  him  to  with- 
draw from  the  valley.     By  a   rapid  movement  through  the 
mountains,  he  descended  in  the  rear  of  the  royalists  and  march- 
ed to   La  Caxa  ;  and  from  thence  he  proceeded  by  a  rapid 
march  across  the  country  during  the  night,  to  an  obscure  place 
called  La  Mina  de  la  Luz.    Here  he  received  some  re-enforce- 
ments, which  increased  his  little  army  to  fourteen  hundred 
men,  with  which  he  did  not  hesitate  to  attack  the  city  of  Guan- 
axuato, although   entirely   destitute   of  artillery.     As  might 
have  been  foreseen,  the  attack  was  unsuccessful,  and  after 
burning  the  machinery  of  the  mine  of  Valenciana,  he  retired, 
and  ordered  his  men  to  their  different  stations,  retaining  sixty 
or  seventy  only  under  his  immediate  command.     The  bold  ca- 
reer of  this  brave  and  intrepid  young  officer  and  patriot,  was 
soon  terminated.     He  was  surprise^  and  captured  by  the  Spa#- 
14* 


162  HISTORY  OF  THE 

ish  general  Orrantia,  at  Venadito,  on  the  27th  of  September, 

1817.  Apadoca  the  viceroy,  gave  orders  for  his  immediate 
execution,  and  he  was  conducted  to  the  head-quarters  of  Li- 
nan,  commanding  the  royal  army  before  Remedios,  where  he 
was  condemned,  and  shot  on  the  llth  of  November.*     The 
capture  of  Mina,  not  only  occasioned  great  joy  among  the  roy- 
al chiefs  in  Mexico,  but  was  regarded  as  so  important  an  event 
by  the  Spanish  government,  that  Apadoca  was  honoured  with 
the  title  of  Conde  del  Venadito,  and  Linan  and  Orrantia,  receiv- 
ed marks  of  distinction  for  having  rendered  so  great  a  service 
to  their  country. 

The  royalists  now  directed  all  their  efforts  in  prosecuting 
the  siege  of  Remedios  ;  and  Torres  finding  his  ammunition 
failing,  evacuated  the  place  on  the  night  of  the  1st  of  January, 

1818.  The  evacuation  was  so  unskilfully  conducted  that  near- 
ly all  of  the  garrison  were  killed  or  made  prisoners,  and  the 
inhabitants  of  the  town  of  all  ages  and  both  sexes,  unarmed 
and  unprotected,  were  involved  in  one  common  ruin,  and  near- 
ly all  massacred. 

The  death  of  Mina,  the  fall  of  Remedios,  and  the  loss  of 
the  garrison,  presaged  the  speedy  overthrow  of  the  cause  of 
independence,  and  encouraged  the  royalists  to  redouble  their 
exertions  for  the  consummation  of  an  object  so  devoutly  to  be 
desired.  The  town  and  fortress  of  Xauxilla,  the  seat  of  the 
government  of  the  revolutionists,  was  invested  by  one  thousand 
men  under  Aguirre  ;  and  the  place  was  compelled  to  surren- 
der, after  being  gallantly  defended  for  three  months.  The 
government  was  removed  into  the  province'  of  Valladolid, 
where  it  was  surprised  in  the  month  of  February,  1818,  by  a 
party  of  royalists,  and  the  president  made  prisoner.  The  pop- 
ular government,  however,  still  maintained  a  precarious  exist- 
ence, ,its  members  being  obliged  to  remove  from  place  to  place, 
to  avoid  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards,  having  no 
troops  sufficient  for  their  protection.  To  increase  their  diffi- 
culties, they  were  involved  in  civil  dissentions.  Torres,  after 
the  fall  of  Remedios,  had  conducted  in  so  capricious  and  ty- 
rannical a  man,ner,  that  it  had  beea  found  necessary  to  deprive 
him  of  his  situation  as  commander  in  chief,  by  a  formal  de- 
cree, which  he  resisted.  Don  Juan  Aragon,  a  French  officer, 
who  came  into  the  country  with  Mina,  was  appointed  to  suc- 
ceed Torres,  and  both  parties  had  recourse' to  force,  to  settle 
*  the  dispute.  The  approach  of  the  royalists  ended  this  unhap- 
py contest,  and  Torres  was  obliged  to  yield  and  place  himself 
under  the  protection  of  the  government.  This  occurred  in 

*•  IYinse?Os  notes  oa  Mexico. 


REVOLUTION     IN    MEXICO.  163 

July,  1819,  and  from  this  period  the  war  languished  every 
where  ;  the  royalists  occupied  all  the  fortresses,  and  every 
town,  and  the  revolutionary  party  appeared  to  be  almost  en- 
tirely crushed.  General  Guearero,  however,  a  brave  and  en- 
terprising officer,  Arago,  and  a  few  others,  continued  to  keep 
the  field  at  the  head  of  guerrillas,  and  roamed  over  the  moun- 
tains ;  and  Guadalupe  Victoria,  an  assumed  name,  but  one 
which  has  since  become  illustrious  in  Mexico,  after  long  main- 
taining himself  in  the  intendency  of  Vera  Cruz,  as  the  only 
resource  left,  disbanded  his  troops,  and  sought  refuge  in  the 
mountains  from  royal  vengeance,  by  which  means  his  life  was 
preserved  for  the  redemption  of  his  country. 

In  1821,  after  the  revolution  in  Spain,  deputies  were  sent 
from  Mexico  to  the  cortes  at  Madrid  to  propose  terms  of  ac- 
commodation to  the  new  government.  On  the  3d  of  May  the 
subject  was  brought  before  the  cortes,  by  count  Ferreno, 
which  resulted  in  a  reference  to  a  committee  consisting  of 
deputies  of  the  Peninsula  and  of  America,  who,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  executive,  were  to  consider  and  propose  such 
measures  as  they  might  deem  best  calculated  to  "  terminate 
the  dissentions  which  prevailed  in  the  various  parts  of  Ameri- 
ca." Whilst  the  subject  was  before  this  committee,  news  ar- 
rived of  the  insurrection  of  Iturbide.  The  discussions  which 
this  event  occasioned,  enabled  the  American  deputies  to  shew 
to  the  cortes  the  impracticability  of  the  trans-atlantic  posses- 
sions of  the  monarchy  being  governed  by  the  same  system  and 
laws  as  the  Peninsula.  The  Mexican  deputies  offered  a  reso- 
lution, instructing  the  viceroy  of  New  Spain,  to  propose  to 
Iturbide  a  suspension  of  hostilities  until  the  project  of  a  gov- 
cTnment  for  America  could  be  decided  on,  which  was  rejected. 

The  committee  devoted  their  attention  to  the  subject  with 
zeal  and  assiduity  corresponding  with  its  importance.  They 
had  frequent  conferences  with  the  ministers,  and  at  length  suc- 
ceeded to  their  mutual  satisfaction  in  maturing  a  plan  of  gov- 
ernment for  the  colonies,  which,  on  being  submitted  to  ^he 
king,  met  with  his  utter  disapprobation  :  this  caused  the  min- 
isters to  decline  acting  further,  at  that  time  upon  the  subject. 
In  consequence  the  committee  reported  that  nothing  could 
then  be  done  but  to  excite  the  zeal  of  the  ministers,  and  re- 
quest them  to  present  to  the  cortes  as  soon  as  possible,  the 
fundamental  measures  which  they  may  deem  calculated  to 
complete  the  pacification  of  the  revolted  provinces.  But  this 
unsuccessful  result  did  not  discourage  the  Mexican  deputies 
from  submitting  to  the  cortes  and  the  executive,  another  plan 
for  the  government  of  America.  This  plan  was,  that  Ameri- 
ca should  be  divided  into  three  parts.  Mexico  and  Guatemala 


164.  HISTORY     OP    THE 

were  to  form  one  jurisdiction,  New  Granada  and  Venezuela 
another,  and  Peru,  Buenos  Ayres  and  Chile  the  third ;  each 
of  these  jurisdictions  were  to  have  a  cortes  possessing,  with 
certain  limitations,  the  same  powers  as  that  of  Spain.  In  each 
division,  the  executive  power  was  to  be  exercised  by  a  delegate, 
named  by  the  king,  rernoveable  by  him  at  pleasure,  and  wholly 
irresponsible  to  the  American  cortes.  He  was  to  act  in  the 
name  of  the  king,  having  the  power  to  appoint  four  ministers 
or  secretaries,  one  of  the  interior  of  finance,  one  of  justice 
and  grace,  one  of  war,  and  one  of* marine.  In  each  govern- 
ment, there  was  to  be  a  supreme  judicial  tribunal  and  council 
of  state,  and  the  commerce  of  Spain  and  America  was  to  be 
regulated  as  between  one  colony  and  another.  Mexico  stipu- 
lated also  to  advance  Spain  a  large  amount  of  money,  as  a 
gratuity,  but  further  negotiation  was  broken  off  .by  the  Colom- 
bian commissioners  disclaiming  any  participation  in  the  scheme, 
and  claiming  the  acknowledgement  of  their  independence  as 
the  only  basis  of  any  accommodation  with  Spain. 


UEVOLUTICN    IN   MEXICO.  16,7 


CHAPTER  X. 

'Royal  authority  re-established — Influence  of  the  clergy — theif 
views  changed  by  the  revolution  in  Spain — second  revolution 
planned — Plan  of  Iguala  proclaimed — Viceroy  deposed — 
disaffection  of  the  people — Victoria  joins  Iturbide,  who  takes 
Queretaro — success  of  the  revolution — arrival  of  O'Donoju 
— Treaty — Mexico  the  capital  surrendered  to  the  revolution- 
ists— Cortes  assembled — different  parties — Regency  appointed 
— Disputes  between  Iturbide  and  the  Cortes' —  Iturbide  declared 
emperor — ambition  of  Iturbide — proposes  to  establish  milita- 
ry tribunals — project  defeated  by  the  cortes. 

THE  struggle  might  now  be  considered  as  terminated,  and 
the  royal  authority  as  re-established  throughout  Mexico.  This 
unfortunate  issue  of  the  revolution,  was  mainly  to  be  attribu- 
ted to  the  opposition  of  the  clergy,  whose  influence  had  al- 
ways controlled  the  conduct  of  a  large  majority  of  the  inhab- 
itants. When  the  revolution  first  broke  out,  and  the  standard 
of  independence  was  unfurled  by  Hidalgo,  the  shouts  of  lib- 
erty spread  from  river  to  river,  and  from  mountain  to  moun- 
tain, until  they  reached  the  shores  of  the  two  oceans  ;  and  the 
whole  country  was  electrified  by  the  patriotic  flame.  The 
people  were  evidently  ripe  for  a  general  rising  ;  but  this  no- 
ble spirit  was  checked  by  the  clergy,  who  viewed  in  a  revolu- 
tion, originating  from,  arid  to  be  sustained  by  the  people,  if  not 
the  overthrow  of  their  power,  at  least  great  danger  of  it,  and 
they  immediately  sounded  the  tocsin  of  alarm.  The  church 
was  in  danger,  the  inquisition  and  the  Roman  apostolic  catho- 
lic religion.  All  the  enginesi  of  a  powerful  hierarchy,  were 
put  in  requisition,  and  all  the  spiritual  weapons  of  the  church 
directed  against  the  revolution.  Disloyalty  to  the  Spanish 
government,  was  not  only  treason,  but  heresy,  the  greatest  of 
all  sins.  Ancient  prejudices  were  renewed,  the  scruples  of 
the  conscientious  appealed  to,  the  fears  of  some  were  excited, 
and  the  ignorance  and  superstition  of  the  army  taken  advan- 
tage of,  to  oppose  the  progress  of  'the  revolution,  and  aid  the 
cause  of  royalty.  The  want  of  an  efficient  government,  and 
unity  of  authority,  dissentions  among  the  patrotic  chiefs,  and 


166  HISTORY    OF    THE 

the  want  of  discipline  in  their  armies,  and  experience  in  then 
commanders,  were  the  causes  of  many  of  their  disasters  which 
retarded  the  progress  of  the  revolution,  and  contributed  to  its 
unfortunate  termination  ;  yet  with  all  these  difficulties,  had 

'not  the  rising  current  of  popular  feeling  been  checked  by  the 
influence  of  the  clergy,  and  religious  prejudices  been  brought 
to  oppose  the  cause  of  liberty  and  independence,  the  first  rev- 
olution would  have  succeeded  ;  and  its  early  champions,  instead 
of  being  rewarded  for  their  exertions  and  patriotism  with  a  hal- 
ter, would  have  been  viewed  as  the  redeemers  of  their  country  s 
and  have  received  the  highest  honors  on  earth,  the  homage  of  a 
free  and  grateful  people. 

But  even  as  it  was,  we  are  not  to  suppose  that  their  exer« 
tions  were  wholly  lost,  and  that  their  blood  flowed  in  vain.  A 
desperate  struggle  of  ten  years,  for  liberty,  in  which  the  best 
blood  of  the  country  had  been  spilt,  and  the  Creoles  and  In- 
dians suffered  incredibly  from  the  cruel  tyranny  of  the  Span- 
ish rulers,  had  exasperated  the  people  against  their  oppres- 
ors,  alienated  their  minds  from  Spain,  shaken  ancient  pre- 
judices, and  diffused  much  intelligence  among  the  inhabitants, 
which  enabled  them  to  understand  their  rights,  and  rendered 

,  them  more  uneasy  under  the  Spanish  yoke.  During  this  long 
contest  too,  much  experience  had  been  acquired  by  the  pat- 
riots, and  they  had  discovered  the  causes  of  their  disasters 
and  miscarriages.  Notwithstanding  therefore,  the  revolution 
had  failed,  it  had  scattered  the  seeds  of  independence  through 
the  valleys,  and  over  the  mountains  of  Mexico,  which  could 
hardly  fail  in  due  time,  of  springing  up  and  producing  fruit 
which  would  ripen  to  maturity.  Had  not  the  second  revolution 
been  brought  about  in  the  manner  it  was,  tranquillity  could  not 
long  have  been  preserved,  as  the  spirit  of  independence  would 
have  soon  disclosed  itself  among  the  people. 

It  is  a  curious  fact,  that  the  same  cause  which  overthrew 
the  first  revolution  in  Mexico,  should  have  produced  the  se- 

•  cond.  This  cause  was  the  exertions  and  influence  of  the 
clergy ';  they  denounced  the  revolution  a,t  first,  and  afterwards 
encouraged  it,  without  however  becoming  advocates  for  liber- 
ty, or  changing  their  motives.  The  constitutional  revolution 
in  Spain,  which  broke  out  in  the  Isle  of  Leon,  the  establish^ 
ment  of  the  cortes,  the  various  innovation's  made  by  them, 
particularly,  the  confiscating  the  estates  and  reforming  some 
of  'the  higher  orders  of  the  priesthood,  alarmed  the  clergy  in 
Spanish  America,  and  at  once  changed  their  attachment  for 
the  mother  country,  into  jealousy  and  hatred.  Their  affection 
for  Spain  proved  to  be  nothing  more  than  an  attachment  for 
?ts  ecclesiastical  despotism,  and  the  moment,  this  was  endan? 


REVOLUTION  IN  MEXICO.  167' 

gered,  and  there  was  a  prospect  of  Spain  becoming  free,  they 
lost  all  regard  and  veneration  for  the  parent  country,  and  from 
being  its  zealous  advocates  became  its  open  opposers.  The 
cortes  were  openly  denounced  from  the  pulpit,  and  their  patri- 
otic measures  for  the  reformation*  of  a  corrupt  and  oppressive 
system,  were  declared  to  be  tyrannical,  and  calculated  to  over- 
throw all  civil  order  and  destroy  the  holy  catholic  religion. 
Considering  the  government  of  Spain  as  now  being  in  the 
hands  of  disorganizers  arid  impious  men,  they  declared  that  a 
separation  was  the  only  mearfe  of  preserving  the  catholic  re- 
ligion ;  and  not  only  openly  advocated  a  revolt  against  the 
vSpanish  government,  but  assisted  in  deyising  and  preparing 
the  plan  for  giving  effect  to  the  revolution.  The  new  order 
of  things  in  the  Spanish  peninsula,  not  only  changed  the  views 
ef  the  clergy  in  Mexico,  but  many  of  the  European  Spaniards 
who  had  been  the  most  zealous  opponents  of  the  revolution, 
\\iere  so  indignant  at  the  conduct  of  the  cortes,  and  so  Hostile 
to  the  constitutional  system,  as  to  prefer  the  separation  of 
Mexico  from  Spain,  to  its  being  governed  by  the  constitution 
of  the  parent  country,  and  falling  under  the  dominion  of  the 
cortes. 

The  Spanish  revolution,  which  entirely  failed  of  securing 
the  freedom  of  the  peninsula,  was  the  means  of  establishing 
the  independence  and  liberty  of  Mexico  ;  and  had  the  singu- 
lar effect  of  converting  the  clergy  and  many  of  the  European 
Spaniards,  in  America,  who  had  been  the  most  violent  oppo- 
nents of  the  revolution,  into  its  most  zealous  advocates.  A 
considerable  part  of  the  two  classes  which  support^  the  royal 
cause,  having  turned  against  it,  it  had  no  other  reliance  but 
the  officers  of  the  government  and  the  military.  The  Span- 
iards, and  the  clergy  who  were  at  this  time  in  favour  of  a  rev- 
olution, had  very  different  views  from  the  Creoles  ;  the  first 
class  wished  for  the  independence  of  Mexico,  in  hopes  to  pre* 
serve  in  America  that  system  of  despotism,  which  they  per- 
ceived overthrown  in  Spain,  and  thus  secure  a  refuge  for 
Ferdinand  the  VII.  ;  the  clergy  were  in  favour  of  a  separation, 
from  an  apprehension  that  the  reforms  and  restrictions  of  the 
prerogatives  of  the  priesthood^  which 'had  been  made  in  Spain 
by  the  constitutionalists,  would  be  introduced  into  America  ; 
whilst  the  Creoles  and  Indians  were  anxious  to  throw  off  the 
Spanish  yoke,  and  thereby  avoid  its  oppressions,  and  to  estab- 
lish a  free  government.  The  latter,  however,  had  m>  agen- 
,cy  at  first  in  the  second  revolution,  as  it  was  planned  and  exe- 
cuted, by  those,  who,  though  friendly  to  the  independence  of 
the  country,  were  opposed  to  its  enjoying  the  benefits  of  liber- 


168  HISTORY    OP    THE 

fy  and  free  institutions,  securing  equal  rights  to  all  classes  of 
the  people. 

The  principal  difficulty  with  the  clergy  and  Europeans  who 
were  in  favour  of  a  revolution,  was  to  select  a  proper  military 
leader,  as  an  instrument  of  carrying  their  plan  into  execution. 
At  length  they  fixed  on  Don  Augustin  Iturbide,  who  although 
a  Creole,  had  been  zealous  in  the  royal  cause,  and  as  an  officer 
©f  the  king,  had  fought  against  the  independents  with  as  much 
animosity  as  any  of  the  Spanish  chiefs.  He  had  been  suc- 
cessful in  his  military  career,  ai*d  had  acquired  the  reputation 
of  a  brave  and  faithful  officer  ;  and  his  situation  at  that  time 
was  very  important,  as  he  had  been  appointed  by  the  viceroy, 
to  command  the  army  designed  to  attack,  and  disperse  several 
popular  chiefs,  who,  with  about  1 500  adherents,  had  fortified 
an  almost  inaccessible  mountain,  between  Mexico  and  Aca- 
pulco,  and  thus  give  the  last  blow  to  the  revolution.  The 
European  Spaniards  considered  him  attached  to  their  party. § 
the  clergy  thought  he  would  maintain  their  power  and  privile- 
ges, and  all  the  enemies  of  liberty  and  of  the  equality  of  the 
different  classes  of  the  population,  regarded  him  as  opposed 
to  the  establishment  of  a  free  government,  and  a  fit  instrument 
to  bring  about  a  revolution,  which  should  separate  the  colonies 
from  Spain,  and  at  the  same  time  maintain  the  monarchical 
system  and  the  power  of  the  hierarchy.* 

The  Spaniards  and  priests  engaged  in  the  plot,  supplied 
Iturbide  with  some  funds,  which  he  augmented  by  seizing  on 
a  convoy  of  specie  of  nearly  a  million  of  dollars  belonging  to 
the  Maniljj  merchants,  whilst  on  his  march  against  the  insur- 
gents. Instead  of  attacking  the  independents,  under  Guer- 
rero, he  formed  a  junction  with  them,  and  attempted  to  ex 
plain  this  event  to  the  viceroy,  by  representing  that  the  patri- 
ots had  united  with  him,  and  proclaimed  the  protection  of  the 
government  in  pursuance  of  the  proclamation  which  he  had 
issued.  In  the  meantime,  the  revolutionists  in  the  capital  had 
despatched  agents  to  all  the  provinces,  and  had  been  extreme- 
ly active  in  disseminating  revolutionary  sentiments  ;  and  the , 
great  body  of  the  clergy,  together  with  many  of  the  Span- 
iards, now  employing  their  influence  in  favour  of  a  revolution, 
in  a  short  time  the  minds  of  thepeople,  were  prepared  to  throw 
off  the  Spanish  yoke.  The  united  armies  proceeded  to  Igua- 
la,  where  on  the  22d  of  February,  1821 ,  Iturbide  submitted  to 
the  officers  a  plan  of  independence,  which  being  unanimously 

*  Different  views  hare  been  given  of  the  origin  of  this  revolution 
so  far  as  respects  the  part  acted  by  Iturbide ;  had  he  pr«?ed  a  pat- 
riot, his  original  motives  would  have  been  considered  as  pure. 


REVOLUTION    IN    MEXICO.  169 

approved  of,  copies  of  it  were  immediately  despatched  to  the 
viceroy  and  the  governors  of  all  the  intendencies.  This  pro- 
ject of  independence,  called  the  plan  of  Iguala,  proposed  that 
Mexico  should  be  independent  of  Spain,  and  be  governed  by 
a  limited  monarchy,  the  crown  first  to  be  offered  to  Ferdinand, 
and  then  to  the  other  members  of  his  family  in  regular  succes- 
sion, subject  to  the  condition  that  the  monarch  must  reside  in 
Mexico,  and  take  an  oath  to  preserve  inviolate  the  constitu- 
tion which  might  be  established  by  a  congress,  to  be  called  for 
that  purpose.  It  also  guarantied  the  security  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion,  and  the  immunities  of  the  secular  and  regu- 
lar clergy  ;  the  indissoluble  union  of  the  European  Spaniards 
and  the  Creoles  or  natives  ;  it  likewise  provided  for  the  secu- 
rity of  the  rights  of  person  and  property,  and  abolished  all  dis- 
tinctions of  classes  ;  Spaniards,  Creoles,  Indians,  Africans, 
and  the  various  casts,  were  to  be  citizens  of  the  monarchy, 
and  alike  eligible  to  places  of  honor  and  emolument.  It  pro- 
vided that  for  the  support  of  this  new  system,  an  army  was  to 
be  raised,  entitled  the  army  of  the  three  guarantees,  to  pre- 
serve the  holy  apostolic  catholic  religion,  the  independence  of 
Mexico,  arid  the  union  between  the  Spaniards  in  Mexico  and 
the  South  Americans. 

The  appearance  of  the  plan  of  Iguala,  opened  the  eyes  of 
Apadoca,  and  expelled  from  his  mind  every  doubt  as  to  the 
defection  of  Iturbide  and  his  revolutionary  designs.  He  im- 
mediately prepared  to  counteract  the  plans  of  the  revolution- 
ists, and  to  maintain  the  authority  of  the  government,  but  was 
arrested  in  his  exertions  by  the  royalists,  who  thinking  him 
ngt  possessed  of  sufficient  nerve,  or  wanting  in  military  tal- 
ents, for  such  a  crisis,  deposed  him  and  elevated  to  his  station, 
Don  Francisco  Novella,  an  officer  of  artillery.  Iturbide's  plan 
of  the  revolution,  was  dissatisfactory  to  the  European  Span- 
iards, who  were  alarmed  at  tying  the  hands  of  the  monarch, 
arid  calling  a  congress  to  impose  on  him  a  constitution,  and 
also  at  the  principle  of  equality  among  the  different  classes, 
as  proposed.  The  rights  and  interest  of  the  clergy  being 
sufficiently  attended  to,  they  were  satisfied  with  this  plan,  and 
the  Europeans  were  oUiged  to  acquiesce.  They  were  also 
informed  that  the  calling  of  a  congress  to  establish  a  constitu- 
tion, was  a  necessary  feature  in  the  plan,  to  reconcile  the  Cre- 
oles to  it,  without  whose  assistance  they  could  not  expect  to 
succeed. 

This  plan  was  submitted  by  Tturbide  to  his  officers,  on  the 
first  of  March,  1821,  they  being  requested  to  express  their 
opinions  freely  on  the  subject,  and  assured  of  the  privilege  of 
acting  as  they  saw  fit.  The  plan  was  unanimously  approved 

VOL.  I.  15 


170  HISTORY    OF    THE 

of,  and  such  was  their  enthusiasm  that  it  was  proposed  to  cre- 
ate Iturbide  lieutenant-general,  and  march  immediately  to 
the  capital  to  carry  it  into  effect.  And  although  at  this  pe- 
riod Iturbide  dreamed  of"  sceptres,  diadems,  and  royal  state,5' 
yet,  like  Cesar,  he  pushed  away  the  crown  ;  he  not  only  de- 
clined the  promotion,  but  declared,  that  the  greatest  modera- 
tion ought  to  be  observed,  and  that  it  was  his  intention  to  carry 
his  plan  into  effect,  if  possible,  without  resorting  to  hostilities. 
The  next  day  Iturbide  proposed  to  the  army  an  oath  to  support 
the  proposed  plan,  which,  having  been  taken,  he  addressed 
them  in  the  following  language  : — 

"  Soldiers — You  have  this  day  sworn  to  preserve  the  Cath- 
olic, Apostolic,  and  Roman  religion  ;  to  protect  the  union  of 
Europeans  and  Americans  ;  to  effect  the  independence  of  this 
empire .;  and,  on  certain  conditions,  to  obey  the  king.  This 
act  will  be  applauded  by  foreign  nations  ;  your  services  will  be 
gratefully  acknowledged  by  your  fellow  citizens  ;  and  your 
names  will  be  inscribed  in  the  temple  of  immortality.  Yester- 
day I  refused  the  title  of  lieutenant-general,  which  you  would 
have  conferred  upon  me,  and  now  I  renounce  this  distinction, 
'(tearing  from  his  sleeves  the  bands  of  lace,  which  distinguish- 
ed a  colonel  in  the  Spanish  service.)  To  be  ranked  as  your 
companion,  fills  all  my  ambitious  desires,"  &>c. 

This  address  shows,  that  the  arts  of  a  military  usurper  are 
the  same,  whether  a  Csesar,  a  Buonaparte,  or  a  Spanish  col- 
onel— affected  moderation,  pretended  patriotism,  and  flatter- 
ing the  soldiers  with  notions  of  companionship  and  equality. 

The  Americans  disapproved  of  the  plan  of  Iguala,  as  they 
were  opposed  to  a  monarchical  form  of  government,  and  still 
more  to  a  prince  of  the  house  of  Bourbon  ;  but  nevertheless, 
favoured  the  revolution,  considering  that  they  should  not  be 
bound  by  this  plan,  and  believing  that  a  convention,  elected 
by  the  people,  would  be  authorized  to  depart  from  it,  and  to 
form  such  a  constitution  as  would  be  most  acceptable  to  the 
great  .body  of  the  people,  and  best  adapted  to  their  condition. 
Many  also  foresaw  that,  when  the  wheels  of  the  revolution 
were  once  set  in  motion,  circumstances  would  be  likely  to  oc- 
cur, calculated  to  give  to  them  a  popular  direction  ;  as  expe- 
rience has  demonstrated,  that  those  who  give  the  first  impulse 
to  revolution's,  cannot  always  control  their  events  or  govern 
their  results. 

The  disaffection  of  the  inhabitants  to  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment, being  almost  universal,  had  only  been  repressed  by  the 
influence  of  the  clergy,  and  that  powerful  class  having  now  not 
only  withdrawn  their  opposition,  but  taken  an  active  part  in 
favour  «f  the  revolution,  it  was  accomplished  without  a  se- 


REVOLUTION    IN    MEXICO.  171 

vere  struggle,  by  the  force  of  public  opinion.     It  was  a  revolu- 
tion in  the  sentiments  of  the  people  so  important  and   so  uni- 
versal, as  to  produce  almost  without  violence,  a  change  in  the 
political  condition  of  the   country.     The  spirit   of  freedom 
spread  with  astonishing  rapidity  ;  in  the  intendancies  of  Vera 
Cruz  and  Puebla,  the  standard  of  revolt  being  raised  by  Bravo, 
Sahtana  and  Herrera,  who  took  possession  of  the  cities  of 
Orizaba,  Cordova  and  Xalapa  ;  and  in  San  Luis  Potosi,  Col- 
onel Bustarnete  declaring  in  favour  of  independence  ;  took 
possession  of  several  cities,  and  among  the  number,  Guanax- 
uato,  where  he  was  joined  by  the  garrison.     In  some  provin- 
ces, however,  the  royalists  made  a  show  of  defence  of  the  old, 
and  opposition  to  the  new  order  of  things.     Iturbide  proceed- 
ed from  Iguala  to  the  Baxio,  lying  between  Guanaxuato  and 
the  capital,  where  he  was  joined  by  several  provincial  govern- 
ors, and  a  number  of  military  officers.     At  San  Juan  del  Rio, 
he  was  joined  by  Guadalupe  Victoria,  who  after  keeping  the 
field  until  further  resistance  became  useless,  had  dismissed  his 
forces,  and  sought  refuge  in  the  mountains  of  Vera  Cruz,  where 
he  had  been  concealed  since  1819.    This  celebrated  chief,  who 
had  been  engaged  in  the  revolution  from  its  commencement,  and 
become  equally  distinguished  for  his  activity  and  bravery  as  a 
warrior,  and  for  his  patriotic  devotion  to  the  cause  of  liberty 
and  the  independence  of  his  country,  possessed  in  an  eminent 
degree,  the  confidence  of  those  engaged  in  the  first  revolution, 
and  of  all  the  friends  of  freedom.     His  joining-  Iturbide  had 
great  influence  with  the  liberal  party  ;  removed  their  doubts, 
dispelled  their  apprehensions,  and  inspired  them  with  confi- 
dence to  afford  their  zealous  support  to  the  revolutionary  cause. 
Iturbide,  sensible  of  the  importance  of  possessing  Queretaro, 
which  from  its  position,  is  in  some  measure  the  key  of  the  in- 
terior provinces,  inarched  against  it,  and  entered  the  town 
without  opposition.     There  he  divided  his  army  of  the  three 
guarantees,  as  it  was  called ;  Victoria  at  the  head  of  one  di- 
vision marched  directly  towards    the  capital,  whilst  Iturbide 
with  the  other,  moved  upon  Puebla,  where  he  was  received 
without  opposition,  and  the  place  immediately  surrendered  to 
him. 

In  this  stage  of  the  revolution,  the  new  viceroy,  general 
O'Donoju,  arrived  at  Vera  Cruz  from  Spain,  intrusted  with  the 
government  of  the  country.  Finding  that  all  was  lost  ;  that 
the  country  had  not  only  declared  its  independence,  but  was 
already  in  the  enjoyment  of  it,  as  the  capital,  Vera  Cruz  and 
Acapulco,  were  the  only  places  in  the  possession  of  the  Span- 
ish government,  or  subject  to  its  authority,  and  these  without 
garrisons  sufficient  t!o  stand  a  seige,  he  proposed  to  Iturbide* 


172  HISTORY  OP    THE 

to  open  a  negotiation,  on  the  basis  of  the  plan  of  Igula.  This 
proposal  having  been  accepted,  the  parties  met  at  Cordova 
and  negotiated  a  treaty,  the  principal  provisions  of  which  were, 
that  Spain  should  acknowledge  the  independence  of  Mexico, 
and  that  the  latter  should  send  commissioners  to  the  Spanish 
peninsula,  to  offer  the  crown  to  Ferdinand  VII.,  and  that  in  the 
mean  time  a  provisional  government  should  be  established, 
consisting  of  a  regency  and  a  junta  ;  and  that  a  cortes  was  to 
be  elected  and  assembled,  to  form  a  constitution  for  the  new 
monarchy.* 

At  this  time  the  capital  had  not  surrendered,  but  was  be- 
sieged by  Victoria,  and  general  O'Donoju  stipulated  to  use  his 
authority  with  the  commander  of  the  Spanish  troops,  to  in- 
duce him  to  evacuate  it.  A  request  was  made  and  refused  ; 
but  the  commander  at  the  same  time  suggested,  that  he  con- 
sidered general  O'Donoju  as  his  superior  officer  by  virtue  of 
his  appointment,  and  that  he  should  obey  his  orders  as  com- 
mander in  chief  of  the  royal  forces  in  New  Spain.  Orders 
were  accordingly  given  for  the  garrison  to  capitulate,  which 
they  did,  and  marched  out  of  the  capital  with  the  honors  of 
war,  and  repaired  to  the  town  of  Toluca,  to  wait  for  trans- 
ports to  convey  them  to  Spain. 

All  opposition  being  at  an  end,  and  the  independents  in  pos- 
session of  the  capital,  a  provisional  junta,  consisting  of  thirty- 
six  members,  was  created,  which  appointed  a  regency  or  ex- 
ecutive, of  five  persons,  of  which  Iturbide  was  president. 
He  was  also  appointed  commander  in  chief  of  the  army  and 
navy,  and  a  salary  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  dol- 
lars assigned  to  him. 

These  preliminary  matters  being  disposed  of,  the  public  at- 
tention was  directed  to  the  assembling  of  the  cortes,  and  the 
formation  of  a  constitution.  A  plan  was  submitted  to  the 
junta  by  Iturbide,  the  basis  of  which  was,  that  the  legislative 
power  should  be  confided  to  two  chambers,  one  to  be  compo- 
sed of  twelve  or  fifteen  dignitaries  of  the  church,  the  same 
number  of  officers  of  the  army,  one  member  from  each  terri- 
torial supreme  court  of  justice,  and  one  to  be  chosen  from 
each  of  the  city  councils,  of  the  several  cities  in  the  empire  ; 
and  the  second  chamber  to  be  composed  of  representatives  of 
the  people,  the  election  to  be  made  according  to  the  ratio  of 
one  deputy  for  every  fifty  thousand  population  ;  the  classes 
represented  in  the  first  chamber  to  be  excluded.  Notwith- 
standing the  influence  of  Iturbide  at  this  time,  and  that  he 
submitted  his  plan  as  emanating  from  the  regency,  it  was  re- 

*  See  the  Treaty  concluded  the  20th  August,  1821. 


REVOLUTION    IN    MEXICO.  173 

jected.  In  the  project  adopted,  the  same  ratio  of  representa- 
tion was  preserved  in  the  chamber  of  representatives,  and  it 
was  provided  that  the  provinces  which  sent  more  than  four 
members,  should  elect  one  ecclesiastic  ;  one  belonging  to  the 
military  class,  arid  one  to  the  legal  profession.  The  proposed 
constitutipn  was  not  popular  ;  it  was  too  aristocratic  to  be  ac- 
ceptable to  the  mass  of  the  people,  who  were  much  dissatis- 
fied with  it.  Among  the  maelcontents,  were  Victoria  and 
Bravo,  who  headed  a  conspiracy,  the  object  of  which  was,  to 
compel  the  junta  to  adopt  the  principles  of  election  of  the 
constitution  of  the  cortes  in  Spain.  The  plot  being  discover- 
ed to  Iturbide,  he  arrested  the  two  republican  generals,  and 
several  of  their  abettors,  and  imprisoned  them. 

The  elections  having  taken  place,  the  cortes  assembled  in 
the  capital  on  the   24th  of  February,   1822;  and  previous  to 
their  organization,  the  members  were  compelled  to  take  an 
oath,  to  preserve  inviolate  every  article  of  the  plan  of  Iguala  ; 
and   after  their  installation,  the  chambers,  by  an  unanimous 
vote,  sanctioned  that  plan.     But  neither  the  oaths  or  votes  of 
the  members,  seem  to  have  had  any  influence  on  their  con- 
duct, for  the  cortes  were  immediately  divided  into  three  par- 
ties— the  friends  of  the  plan  of  Iguala,  the  opponents  of  that 
plan,  and  the  personal  adherents  of  Iturbide.     The  first  party 
comprised  the  monarchists,  the  friends  of  Ferdinand,  and  some 
liberal  men  who  were  in  favour  of  the  revolution,  but  who 
thought  a  moderate  course  the  safest,  and  that  an  adherence 
to  the  plan  of  Iguala,  would  not  only  reconcile  the  European 
Spaniards  to  the  revolution,  but  check  the  ambitious  designs 
of-Iturbide.     The  republican  party  denied  the  right  of  Itur- 
bide and  the  army,  to  pledge  the  nation,  and  were  opposed  to 
the  plan  of  Iguala,  both  on  the  ground  of  principle  and  policy. 
Thinking  the  nation  capable  of  self  government,  they  were  in 
favour  of  a  republic,  and  were  alarmed  at  placing  a  prince  of 
the  house  of  Bourbon,   at   the  head  of  the  government,  who, 
having  the  command  of  the  army,  the  influence  of  the  cler- 
gy, the  support  of  the  royalists  in  the  country,  and  of  those 
who  would  be  likely  to  emigrate  from  Spain,  would  break 
down  every  constitutional  barrier  to  absolute  power.     The 
partizans  of  Iturbide  wished  to  accumulate  power  in  his  hands, 
and  to  push  him  forward  to  the  supreme  authority,  that  through 
him  they  might  acquire  wealth  and  aggrandize  themselves. 
They  possessed  the  balance  of  power,  and  acted  with  one 
party  or  the  other,  as  best  suited  their  object  in  advancing 
their  leader  ;  to  prevent  the  republican  party  from  establishing 
a  democratic  constitution,  they  voted  with  the  Bourbonists, 
or   friends   of  the   plan  of  Iguala,   and  when  the  latter  at- 

15* 


174  HISTORY    OF    THE 

tempted  to  carry  into  effect  that  part  of  the  plan,  which  pro 
vided  for  calling  a  prince  of  the  house  of  Bourbon  to  the 
throne,  they  opposed  it,  by  voting  with  the  republicans.  The 
greater  part  of  the  two  first  parties  were  honest  in  their  in- 
tentions, and  only  differed  in  their  views  ;  they  soon  found  it 
necessary  to  unite  to  oppose  the  ambitious  designs  of  Iturbide. 
So  dangerous  is  the  possession  of  power,  that  this  chief,  who, 
but  a  short  time  before  sustained  no  higher  rank  than  a  colo- 
nel in  the  royal  army,  was  now  bent  on  attaining  the  supreme 
authority.  He  assembled  four  thousand  troops  at  Tacuba,  and 
endeavoured  to  overawe  the  cortes,  and  dictate  to  them.  A 
joint  meeting  of  the  regency  and  the  cortes  was  held,  and 
Iturbide  assumed  the  president's  chair,  to  the  surprise  and 
astonishment  of  every  one  ;  but  the  cortes,  asserting  that  it 
belonged  to  the  president  of  their  body  to  preside,  Iturbide 
was  obliged  to  yield  that  point.  Aided  by  his  partisans, 
Iturbide  constantly  exerted  himself,  to  extend  his  power,  and 
encroach  on  the  authority  of  the  congress  ;  and  this  struggle 
between  the  military  chief  and  the  legislative  body,  was  ter- 
minated only  by  the  overthrow  of  the  latter.  This  contest, 
like  that  in  England,  between  Charles  I.  and  his  parliament, 
and  most  others,  between  the  executive  and  the  legislature, 
consisted  principally  of  a  demand  of  money  on  the  one  part, 
and  a  refusal  on  the  other,  attended  with  various  irritating  cir- 
cumstances. When  the  person  possessing  the  executive  pow- 
er, attempts  to  play  the  tyrant,  the  greatest  obstacle  usually 
experienced  is  the  want  of  pecuniary  resources,  and  hence  the 
withholding  of  money,  is  the  most  effectual  check  to  the  ex- 
tension of  executive  power. 

Iturbide,  like  Bonaparte  and  other  military  usurpers,  relied 
solely  on  the  army,  as  he  was  sensible  that  he  could  not  carry 
any  considerable  part  of  the  people  with  him  of  any  party. 
The  Spanish  royalists  would  not  favour  his  designs  of  usurping 
the  throne  of  Mexico,  which  belonged  to  the  house  of  Bour- 
bon ;  and  the  patriots  did  not  wish  to  exchange  one  master  for 
another,  which  would  destroy  all  the  advantages  of  the  revolu- 
tion. They  wished  the  country  to  be  independent,  that  it  might 
be  free.  Iturbide  had  increased  the  army  and  raised  its  pay, 
and  to  maintain  it,  he  made  constant  demands  on  the  congress 
for  money.  Had  the  cortes  been  disposed  to  furnish  the  sup- 
plies demanded,  it  would  not  have  been  in  their  power,  as  the 
protracted  war,  attended  with  immense  expense  and  devasta- 
tion, had  exhausted  the  country.  His  demands  were  answer- 
ed by  complaints  of  the  want  of  economy  in  the  public  expen- 
diture, and  by  calling  on  the  regency  to  account  for  the  appro- 
priations which  had  already  been  made.  Iturbide,  as  com* 


REVOLUTION    IN    MEXICO.  175 

marider  in  chief,  enjoyed  a  salary  of  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
seven  thousand  dollars,  and  his  father  a  pension  of  ten  thou- 
sand ;  the  salary  of  the  ministers  was  eight  thousand  each, 
and  the  members  of  the  cortes  received  three  thousand. 

This  struggle  between  Iturbide  and  the  congress,  occasion- 
ed the  army  to  go  unpaid  ;  and  the  commander  in  chief,  in  or- 
der to  exasperate  them  against  the  cortes,  published  his  re- 
monstrance to  congress,  exhibiting  the  wants  and  sufferings  of 
the  army,  which  he  charged  to  the  wilful  neglect  of  that  body 
to  provide  the  necessary  supplies. 

The  dissentions  and  disorders  which  prevailed,  occasioned 
the  royal  troops  at  Toluca,  who  had  capitulated  at  Mexico,  to 
attempt  a  counter-revolution.  Having  obtained  information 
of  this,  Iturbide  adopted  measures  to  defeat  it,  and  at  the  same 
time  made  use  of  it  as  a  pretext  for  withdrawing  from  the  cap- 
ital all  the  troops  which  were  well  disposed  towards  the  con- 
gress. This  step  was  followed  by  a  proclamation  declaring 
that  the  country  was  in  danger,  and  summoning  the  congress 
to  assemble  the  next  day,  the  3d  of  April,  at  an  early  hour, 
with  the  regency.  At  the  joint  meeting  held  in  pursuance  of 
the  summons,  Yanez,  a  member  of  the  regency,  arose  and  de- 
manded the  cause  of  the  alarm.  This  declaration  occasioned 
general  surprise,  as  it  plainly  shewed  that  Iturbide  had  himself 
issued  the  proclamation  in  the  name  of  the  regency,  and  evi» 
dently  to  promote  his  own  ambitious  views.  Yanez  concluded 
by  protesting  against  the  president's  engrossing  the  entire  au- 
thority of  the  regency,  and  making  use  of  his  colleagues  only 
as  a  screen  to  cover  his  own  ambitious  designs.  "  He  has 
usurped,"  continued  Yanez,  "  the  sole  executive  power,  and 
rendered  himself  absolute  and  despotic."  Iturbide  made  an 
indignant  reply,  and  charged  Yanez  with  being  not  only  a  per- 
sonal enemy  to  him,  but  a  traitor  to  his  country  f  he  also  de- 
clared that  this  was  equally  true  of  many  members  of  the  cortes. 
A  tumultuous  and  disorderly  scene  ensued  ;  Iturbide  was  re- 
peatedly called  on  to  name  the  members  to  whom  he  alluded, 
and  to  exhibit  his  charges  and  proofs  against  them.  He  named 
several  members  most  distinguished  for  talents  and  integrity, 
and  the  charges  exhibited  against  them  consisted  only  of  their 
patriotic  efforts  to  check  his  usurpations  and  ambitious  designs. 
The  cortes  inquired  into  the  charges,  and  unanimously  acquit- 
ted the  members  accused,  of  any  improper  conduct,  which  ex- 
asperated Iturbide.  These  occurrences  excited  complaints 
against  the  regency,  and  petitions  were  presented  to  the  cortes 
for  the  removal  of  the  members  of  that  body.  A  new  appoint- 
ment was  made,  and  two  of  the  old  members  only  retained, 
Iturbide,  from  fear  of  his  influence  with  the  army,  and  Yanez 


176  HISTORY    OF    THE 

on  account  of  his  bold  and  patriotic  conduct  at  the  sittincr  ou 
the  3d  of  April.* 

Alarmed  at  the  ambitious  plans  of  Iturbide,  and  the  ascend- 
ancy he  had  gained  over  the  military,  the  cortes  were  desi- 
rous of  reducing  the  army  to  twenty  thousand  men,  and 
of  organizing  a  national  militia.  These  wise  and  prudent 
measures  excited  both  the  fears  and  indignation  of  Iturbide, 
and  he  used  all  his  influence  to  oppose  them,  and  even  to  pro- 
cure an  augmentation  of  the  army.  The  contest  became 
warm,  but  the  congress  could  not  be  intimidated  or  frightened 
out  of  their  purpose,  and  they  passed  a  decree  providing  for 
reducing  the  army  to  twenty  thousand  men,  and  for  organizing 
and  calling  into  service  a  force  of  thirty  thousand  militia.  Itur- 
bide and  his  partizans  perceived  that  public  opinion  was  against 
them,  and  that  the  reduction  of  the  army,  and  the  organization 
of  a  force  of  militia,  would  deprive  them  of  all  chance  of  suc- 
cess. It  was  therefore  determined  to  carry  their  plans  into 
immediate  execution,  by  stimulating  the  soldiery  to  declare 
Iturbide  emperor.  Accordingly,  on  the  night  of  the  1 8th  of  May, 
the  sergeants  of  three  regiments  of  the  garrison  in  the  capital  as- 
sembled the  soldiers,  and  addressed  them  in  a  manner  calcula- 
ted to  exasperate  them  against  the  cortes,  and  to  give  a  fresh 
stimulus  to  their  zeal  for  the  interests  of  their  leader,  money  was 
profusely  distributed  among  them.  They  were  then  marched  to 
Iturbide's  house,  and  parading  in  front  of  it,  were  joined  by  a 
mob  of  Leperos,  the  lowest  and  most  worthless  portion  of  the 
community,  and  at  10  o'clock  commenced  shouting,  "  Long  live 
Iturbide,  Augustin  I.  emperor  of  Mexico."  These  shouts,  with 
intervals  of  firing,  continued  until  morning.  To  prevent  tpe  at- 
tendance of  some  of  the  most  able  and  influential  members  of 
the  cortes  at  the  session  that  morning,  the  conspirators  caused 
private  intimation  to  be  conveyed  to  them,  that  their  lives 
would  not  be  safe  should  they  appear  in  public  that  day,  as  the 
troops  wrere  so  exasperated  against  them,  and  in  such  a  state 
of  turbulence  and  insubordination,  that  it  might  not  be  in  the 
power  of  the  officers  to  restrain  them  from  acts  of  violence  and 
outrage.  This  disguised  threat  had  the  intended  effect,  and 
forty  members  of  the  cortes  were  absent  when  that  body  met, 
comprising  the  most  bold  and  determined  opponents  of  the 
usurper.  Shouts,  insults  and  threats,  assailed  the  cortes  whilst 
proceeding  to  the  hall  of  congress,  from  a  mercenary  and  dis- 
orderly soldiery  and  mob,  who  filled  the  galleries  of  the  hall,  so 
as  to  exclude  all  other  persons.  The  occurrences  of  the  ni^ht 
occasioned  deep  anxiety  and  concern  among  the  members,  and 

*  Poinsett's  Notes  on  Mexico. 


REVOLUTION    IN    MEXICO.  177 

mu£h  excitement  was  apparent.  At  length,  order  being  estab- 
lished, one  of  the  deputies  belonging  to  the  faction  of Iturbide, 
arose,  and  after  adverting  to  the  occurrences  of  the  preceding 
night,  and  the  existing  disorders,  observed  that  the  voice  of 
the  people  had  been  declared  in  favour  of  Iturbide,  and  that  it 
was  the  duty  of  their  representatives  to  obey  the  will  of  their 
constituents.  He  concluded  with  proposing  to  proceed  imme- 
diately to  the  election  *if  an  emperor.  This  proposition  having 
been  expected,  did  not  surprise  the  members,  though  it  occa- 
sioned a  solemn  pause,  which  continued  for  several  moments. 
At  length  a  member  arose  ;  aware  that  it  would  be  of  no  use 
directly  to  oppose  the  proposition,  and  with  a  view  to  gain  time, 
suggested  a  doubt  as  to  the  authority  of  the  congress  to  act 
on  the  subject,  as  they  had  not  been  elected  for  that  purpose, 
but  to  frame  a  constitution  ;  and  expressed  an  opinion  that  if 
the  house  were  to  proceed  to  an  election  at  all,  it  ought  not  to 
take  so  important  a  step  without  first  consulting  the  provinces. 
These  moderate  remarks  occasioned  instant  tumult  in  the  gal- 
leries. The  soldiers  and  populace  became  outrageous,  and 
not  only  vociferated,  "  Long  live  Augustin  I.  emperor  of  Mex- 
ico," but  brandishing  their  swords  and  knives,  threatened  to 
put  to  death  all  the  deputies  who  were  opposed  to  the  election 
of  Tturbide,  unless  he  was  chosen  and  proclaimed  emperor  be- 
fore one  o'clock.  Further  opposition  to  a  licentious  soldiery 
and  an  infuriated  populace,  was  deemed  riot  only  dangerous 
but  unavailing,  and  the  members  of  the  cortes  opposed  to  this 
usurpation,  were  compelled  to  yield  to  circumstances  which 
they  could  not  control,  and  give  consent  to  the  choice  of  the 
army.  The  success  of  the  conspiracy  so  elated  the  soldiers 
that  a  few  days  after  the  election,  they  issued  a  manifesto,  in 
which  they  triumphantly  claimed  the  principal  merit, of  the  ele- 
vation of  the  emperor,  and  asserted  that  the  plan  was  contriv- 
ed and  executed  by  themselves  alone.  This  daring  usurpa- 
tion of  a  military  chieftain,  distinguished  neither  for  his  servi- 
ces nor  his  talents,  was  submitted  to  without  open  resistance  or 
complaint,  and  the  officers  of  the  government  at  the  capital  and 
in  the  provinces  took  the  oath  of  allegiance. 

There  is  scarcely  another  instance  in  history,  of  a  man  no 
way  distinguished  as  a  military  leader,  and  having  no  hold  on 
the  affections  of  the  people  for  any  distinguished  or  patriotic 
services,  raising  himself  to  the  supreme  power,  over  an  exten- 
sive'country.  But  notwithstanding  the  crooked  councils  and 
open  violence  by  which  Iturbide  obtained  the  sovereign  power, 
had  he  possessed  talents  arid  governed  with  moderation,  such 
was  the  condition  of  the  country,  that  he  might  have  maintain- 
ed his  elevation  for  a  considerable  time,  and  possibly  have  es- 


178  HISTORY    OP    THE 

tablished  a  new  empire  and  a  new  dynasty.  Fortunately, 
fyowever,  the  for  the  Mexicans  and  America,  the  intoxication 
of  success,  and  the  sudden  possession  of  power,  turned  the 
head  of  Iturbide,  and  prepared  him  for  his  own  destruction. 
His  obvious  policy  would  have  been  not  only  to  have  concilia- 
ted the  people  as  well  as  the  soldiers,  but  to  have  acted  in 
concert  with  the  cort.es,  and  to  have  recognized  his  elevation 
and  formed  the  basis  of  his  power.  His  security  required 
that  he  should  have  been  content  with  the  enjoyment  of  the 
executive  power,  and  to  have  governed  in  conjunction  with 
the  cortes,  leaving  with  them  the  resposibility  of  making  the 
laws.  But  instead  of  this  course,  he  immediately  attempted 
to  render  himself  absolute,  and  kept  up  a  constant  struggle 
with  the  congress  for  power.  He  insisted  on  the  appointment 
of  his  privy  council,  the  judges  of  the  supreme  court,  and  an 
unqualified  veto  on  all  laws  made  by  the  cortes,  and  even  on 
the  articles  of  the  constitution  which  that  body  was  about  to 
frame.  The  cortes  proposed  to  leave  the  question  of  the  veto 
to  be  determined  by  the  constitution,  and  yielded  to  him  the 
appointment  of  his  council,  but  insisted  on  retaining  the  priv- 
ilege of  nominating  the  secretary  of  the  council.  The  cortes 
were  strenuously  opposed  to  investing  him  with  the  right  of 
appointing  the  supreme  judges,  as  that  being  a  very  dangerous 
power,  and  much  exposed  to  be  abused.  During  the  interval 
that  might  elapse  previous  to  the  adoption  of  a  constitution, 
the  cortes  proposed  that  the  emperor  with  the  advice  and  con- 
sent of  his  council,  should  have  the  right  of  returning  laws 
and  proposing  alterations.  The  emperor  at  first  assented  to 
these  propositions  ;  but  soon  changed  his  mind  and  renewed 
his  first  pretensions,  insisting  that  the  constitution  of  the  Span- 
ish cortes,  which  had  been  adopted  as  the  basis  of  a  tempora- 
ry government,  conferred  on  him  those  powers.  The  congress 
had  at  first  adopted  the  Spanish  constitution  as  the  basis  of  a 
government  in  Mexico,  until  a  constitution  could  be  provided  ; 
excepting  such  parts  as  were  inconsistant  with  the  independ- 
ence of  Mexico,  the  plan  of  Iguala,  and  the  decrees  which 
the  cortes  might  pass,  as  it  was  intended  only  as  the  outline  of 
the  government,  and  not  to  restrict  the  legislation  of  the 
eortes.  It  could  not  therefore  invest  the  emperor  with  any 
power,  inconsistent  with  the  decrees  of  the  cortes.  The 
struggle  was  continued  between  the  executive  and  legislative 
branches  of  the  government,  but  at  length  the  cortes  yielded 
to  the  emperor  the  appointment  of  the  secretary  of  his  coun-' 
cil,  yet  continued  firm  and  unshaken  in  their  purpose  to  with- 
hold from  him  the  controul  of  the  judiciary,  as  they  had  rea- 
son to  fear,  if  he  possessed  this  power,  he  would  elevate  to  the 


REVOLUTOIN    IN    MEXICO.  179 

bench,  men  who  would  become  the  mere  instruments  of  his 
arbitrary  purposes,  to  the  subversion  of  all  justice,  and  the 
danger  of  the  liberty  and  lives  of  all  who  might  oppose  the 
imperial  will.  The  emperor  attempted  to  overawe  and  con- 
trol the  deliberations  of  the  cortes,  for  which  purpose  his 
partizans  and  the  soldiers  filled  the  galleries,  and  were  guilty 
of  the  most  disorderly  and  threatening  conduct,  disgraceful  to 
the  government,  and  derogatory  to  the  national  legislation. 
The  cortes,  however,  could  not  be  intimidated,  but  remained 
firm  in  their  purpose  of  resisting  the  arbitrary  measures  of  the 
emperor,  and  maintaining  the  liberties  of  the  people.  The 
project  of  a  law  for  the  establishment  of  military  tribunals, 
was  prepared  by  the  emperor  and  his  council,  and  submitted 
to  the  cortes  by  the  minister  of  justice.  As  the  adoption  of 
so  extraordinary  a  measure,  could  only  be  justified  from  the 
existence  of  extraordinary  and  alarming  circumstances,  the 
preamable  to  the  law  declared  : 

"  That  the  interruption  in  the  administration  of  justice — 
the  robberies,  murders,  assassinations — the  banditti  that  infest 
the  high-ways — the  disorders  that  disturb  the  public  tranquil- 
lity— the  absence  of  all  punishment,  an  impunity,  authorised, 
as  it  were,  by  law,  clearly  show  that  the  administration  of  jus- 
tice is  paralyzed,  that  there  are  no  judges,  no  tribunals  of  jus- 
tice, and  that  the  commission  of  crimes  has  gone  so  far  that 
the  ordinary  tribunals  are  not  sufficient  to  suppress  them. 
To  remedy  these  evils  it  is  thought  expedient  to  adopt  a  new 
system  for  the  administration  of  justice  ;  and  the  following  ar- 
ticles are  proposed  to  be  passed  into  a  law  : 

"•1st.  That  there  shall  be  in  this  city,  and  in  all  the  capi- 
tal cities  of  the  provinces,  a  special  tribunal,  composed  of  two 
officers  of  th6  army,  and  of  one  lawyer,  to  be  appointed  by  the 
emperor. 

"  2d.  This  tribunal  shall  have  exclusive  jurisdiction,  or 
ointly  with  the  other  judges,  in  all  cases  of  conspiracy  against 
the  state,  and  jointly  with  the  other  judges  in  all  cases  of  rob- 
bery, assassinations  and  murders. 

"  3d.  All  appeals  to  be  made  to  the  captain  general  of  the 
provinces,  who  shall  pronounce  sentence  after  hearing  the 
opinion  of  a  solicitor,  appointed  for  that  purpose. 

"4th.  This  sentence  to  be  carried  into  execution  when- 
ever it  agrees  with  that  of  the  first  tribunal ;  and  in  case  of 
disagreement,  the  cause  to  be  referred  to  a  council  of  war. 

"  5th.  The  articles  287,  293,  295,  299  and  300  of  the  Span- 
ish constitution  to  be  suspended.  (These  provide  for  the  ha- 
beas corpus.) 

"6th.  That  there  shall  be  in  this  capital,  a  chief,  with 
whatever  »ame  or  title  the  emperor  may  choose  to  confer  on 


180  HISTORY    OF    THE 

him,  especially  charged  to  watch  over  the  public  security,  and 
to  exercise  the  most  vigilant  police." 

"  The  committee  of  congress  appointed  to  examine  and  re- 
port on  this  project  of  a  law,  declared — 

lt  1st.  That  it  is  contrary  to  the  enlightened  principles  of 
those  authors,  who  have  written  on  the  subject  of  government 
with  most  philosophy. 

"  2d.  Contrary  to  public  opinion,  which  all  governments 
are  bound  to  respect. 

"  3d.  Contrary  to  the  Spanish  constitution,  which  has  been 
adopted  until  a  new  one  be  formed  for  the  empire. 

"  4th.  Contrary  to  reason,  which  ought  to  guide  the  legisla- 
tion of  a  people. 

"  5th.  Contrary  to  the  interests  of  the  Mexican  nation  in 
its  present  situation." 

Thjs  report  was  adopted  unanimously,  and  the  attempt  to 
establish  military  tribunals,  as  a  preliminary  step  towards  mil- 
itary despotism,  was  indignantly  put  dowa. 


REVOLUTION    IN    MEXICO.  181 


CHAPTER  XI. 

Tyrannical  conduct  of  the  emperor — his  power  over  the  congress 

dissolves  the  congress — A  junta  assembled — Disaffection  of 

the  people — Santana  and  Victoria  join  the  republicans — spirit 
of  revolt  spreads  rapidly — Iturbide  resigns  the  crown — he  em- 
barks for  Leghorn — new  congress  assembled — commissioners 
from  Spain — State  of  the  country — adoption  of  the  constitu- 
tion  disaffection  in  the  army — Iturbide  meditates  a  return-^- 

congress  declares  him  a  traitor  and  outlaw — public  credit — 
slavery — Iturbide  returns  in  disguise — is  arrested  and  execu- 
ted. 

THE  emperor  perceiving  that  the  cortes  were  firm  and  reso- 
lute in  opposing  his  plans,  found  it  necessary  to  resort  to  co- 
ertion  and  violence  ;  and  on  the  night  of  the  26th  of  August, 
1822,  he  caused  fourteen  of  the  most  distinguished  and  intre- 
pid members  to  be  arrested  and  thrown  into  prison,  on  a 
charge  of  conspiracy  against  the  government.  Indignant  at 
this  tyrannical  measure,  the  cortes  assembled  in  secret  ses- 
sion the  next  day,  and  demanded  of  the  minister  the  cause  of 
the  arrests  which  had  been  made  ;  and  were  informed  that 
some  of  the  members  were  actually  implicated  in  a  conspir- 
acy, and  others  suspected,  and  that  they  had  been  arrested  by 
authority  of  an  article  in  the  Spanish  constitution,  conferring 
that  power  on  the  executive,  i' he  following  clay,  the  cortes 
sent  a  message  to  the  minister,  suggesting  that  the  172d  arti- 
cle of  the  Spanish  constitution,  provides,  that  all  persons  ar- 
rested shall  be  brought  to  trial  if  they  desire  it,  within  forty- 
eight  hours,  and  demanding  that  in  compliance  with  this  pro- 
vision, the  prisoners  be  immediately  brought  before  a  compe- 
tent tribunal  for  trial.  To  this  message,  it  was  answered, 
that  the  charge  was  of  so  complicated  a  nature,  that  it  was 
impossible  to  comply  with  the  request  of  the  cortes  ;  and  that 
the  article  of  the  constitution  referred  to,  spoke  only  of  one 
person,  and  could  not  be  applicable  to  several  who  were  charg- 
ed with  the  same  crime,  as  it  might  be  easy  to  try  one  per- 
son within  forty-eight  hours,  but  would  be  impossible  to  exam- 
ine the  charges  against  a  number  in  that  limited  time.  The 
congress  next  determined  to  present  an  address  to  the  en> 
VOL.  I.  16 


182  HISTORY    OF    THE 

peror  himself,  praying  that  the  constitution  may  not  be  violat- 
ed, and  requesting  that  the  deputies  accused  might  be  deliv- 
ered up  to  them,  in  which  case  they  could  constitute  a  tribu- 
nal for  their  immediate  trial.  At  nine  o'clock  at  night,  his 
majesty's  answer  was  received,  which  repeated  the  interpreta- 
tion given  by  the  minister,  to  the  172d  article  of  the  constitu- 
tion, and  declared  that  he  could  not  consent  to  have  the  ac- 
cused members  tried  before  the  tribunal  which  the  cortes  might 
create,  until  it  could  first  be  ascertained  whether  the  members 
of  the  tribunal  were  not  themselves  implicated  in  the  conspir- 
acy. This  communication  excited  much  feeling,  and  occa- 
sioned an  animated  discussion,  attended  with  severe  animad- 
versions on  the  conduct  of  the  emperor  and  his  ministers. 

After  continuing  to  assemble  in  secret  sessions  until  the 
12th  of  September,  without  being  able  either  to  procure  the 
release  or  trial  of  the  accused  members,  the  cortes  resolved 
to  say  no  more  on  that  subject  at  present,  and  attend  to  the 
business  before  them.  The  great  questions  of  the  veto,  and 
the  appointment  of  the  supreme  judges,  still  continued  unset- 
tled, and  subjects  of  dispute  between  the  emperor  and  the  cor- 
tes. At  length,  becoming  satisfied  that  he  could  not  carry 
these  points,  and  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  render  him- 
self absolute  whilst  the  Cortes  remained,  the  emperor  resolv- 
ed to  free  himself,  from  what  he  regarded  as  the  only  obstacle 
to  his  power.  He  assembled  in  his  palace  a  junta,  or  what  in 
this  country  would  be  called  a  caucus,  composed  of  the  gen- 
eral officers  of  the  army,  his  ministers  and  council  of  state, 
and  such  of  the  deputies  of  the  cortes  as  were  favourable  to 
his  views.  He  addressed  the  junta,  and  declared,  that  the 
majority  of  the  cortes  were  hostile  to  the  present  system,  and 
wished  to  establish  a  democracy,  under  the  name  of  a  monar^ 
chy ;  that  the  country  was  in  imminent  danger,  and  would  be 
ruined  unless  the  number  of  the  deputies  was  reduced  ;  that 
the  congress  had  failed  to  give  a  constitution  to  the  empire, 
but  had  adopted  that  of  Spain,  which  was  not  suited  to  its  con- 
dition, and  had  made  no  provision  for  the  administration  of 
justice,  or  for  the  exigencies  of  the  treasury.  These  charges 
against  the  cortes,  were  correct  in  point  of  fact,  but  the  empe- 
ror himself  had  been  the  cause  why  the  congress  had  not  ef- 
fected any  of  these  objects,  by  his  arbitrary  conduct,  and  his 
persecutions  and  encroachments  on  the  authority  and  privi- 
leges of  the  legislative  body.  It  was  finally  determined  at  this 
meeting,  to  require  of  congress,  the  reduction  of  their  number, 
and  that  they  grant  to  the  emperor  the  appointment  of  the 
judges,  and  an  unqualified  veto  on  all  laws.  These  proposals 
were  submitted  to  the  cortes  by  the  ministers  and  four  coun- 


REVOLUTION    IN    MEXICO.  183 

sellers  of  state,  who  were  allowed  to  discuss  them.  The  cor- 
tes  wishing  to  put  at  rest  these  disputed  questions,  and  many 
believing  that  they  were  the  sole  causes  of  the  persecutions 
the  congress  had  suffered  ;  and  being  sensible  of  the  alarming 
circumstances  of  the  country,  as  the  government  did  not  even 
pay  the  printers,  which  prevented  their  decrees  from  being 
published,  they  finally  resolved  to  grant  to  the  emperor  the 
appointment  of  the  judges,  and  a  veto  on  all  laws  except  the 
articles  of  the  constitution.  It  was  hoped  that  this  would  sat- 
isfy his  majesty,  andr  estore  harmony  between  the  two  branch- 
es of  the  government,  and  enable  the  congress  to  attend  to 
the  important  regulations  which  the  state  of  the  country,  and 
the  exigences  of  the  treasury  so  imperiously  demanded.  How 
insatiable  is  the  lust  of  power  !  When  the  ocean  is  satisfied 
with  its  tributary  waters,  then  will  the  ambition  of  man  be  sat- 
isfied with  the  possession  of  power.  The  concessions  made  to 
the  emperor,  instead  of  contenting  him,  seemed  to  increase  his 
avidity  for  power,  and  he  immediately  demanded  that  his  veto 
should  be  extended  to  the  articles  of  the  constitution,  and  that 
the  number  of  the  cortes  should  be  diminished.  The  cortes 
perceived  the  fallaciousness  of  their  hopes,  as  to  satisfying  the 
emperor,  and  that  the  more  they  yielded  to  him,  the  more  he 
would  demand.  They  determined  to  make  no  farther  con- 
cessions, and  by  a  decided  majority,  rejected  the  imperial  de- 
mands, although  not  insensible  that  matters  had  reached  a  cri- 
sis. The  next  day  the  emperor  sent  a  general  officer  to  the 
hall,  with  orders  to  dissolve  the  congress,  and  to  expel  the 
members  by  force,  if  they  did  not  retire  in  ten  minutes.  The 
deputies  were  in  some  measure  prepared  for  t,his  violent  pro- 
ceeding, and  the  president  having  directed  this  order  entered 
on  the  journals  of  the  chamber,  the  officer  signed  the  same, 
and  the  members  retired  from  the  hall.  Iturbide  issued  a 
proclamation  the  next  day,  declaring  the  dissolution  of  the 
congress,  alleging  as  a  reason,  that  it  had  totally  neglected 
its  duty,  in  failing  to  present  the  nation  a  constitution,  to  pro- 
vide for  the  administration  of  justice,  and  to  supply  the  exigen- 
ces of  the  treasury,  in  consequence  whereof  the  army  remain- 
ed unpaid,  and  alarming  disorders  prevailed.  The  proclama- 
tion concluded  with  several  decrees  :  / 

"  1st.  The  congress  is  dissolved  from  the  moment  this  de- 
cree is  promulgated. 

"  2d.  The  national  representation  shall  b«  continued  until 
a  new  congress  can  be  assembled,  in  a  junta,  composed  of  two 
members  from  each  of  the  larger  provinces,  and  one  from  the 
smaller — all  of  whom  I  will  nominate. 

"  3d.  The  business  to  which  this  junta  shall  attend,  is  to 
be  determined  by  separate  regulations. 


184  HISTORY  OF    THE 

"  The  members  of  congress,  not  of  this  junta,  must  in  or- 
der to  leave  the  capital,  signify  their  intentions  to  the  political 
chief.  Those  who  remain,  and  are  not  inhabitants  of  this  city, 
may  apply  to  the  treasury  for  their  daily  pay. 

"  The  junta  shall  meet  and  commence  their  duties  on  the 
second  day  of  November." 

The  emperor  selected  forty-five  members  of  the  congress, 
and  eight  substitutes  for  the  junta,  who  assembled  in  the  con- 
gressional hall  on  the  day  named,  at  five  o'clock  in  the  after- 
noon, and  a  little  after  dark  the  emperor  appeared,  and  taking 
his  seat  on  the  imperial  throne,  addressed  them,  in  the  follow- 
ing language  : 

"  Gentlemen  : — When  the  nation,  borne  down  by  the 
chains,  which  it  had  dragged  for  the  space  o(  three  centuries, 
could  not  explain  its  wish  to  recover  its  natural  independence, 
I,  with  a  small  number  of  troops,  resolved  to  declare  it,  in  the 
face  of  frightful  perils  ;  and  from  that  time,  my  voice,  in  con- 
sequence of  that  act,  became  necessarily  and  essentially  the 
organ  of  the  general  will  of  the  inhabitants  of  this  empire. 
It  became  my  duty  to  consider  well,  and  to  seize  the  true 
points  of  what  is  politically  called  the  general  will,  and  this 
important  consideration,  constituted  one  of  the  many  essen- 
tial prerequisites  lor  the  sue  cess  of  the  undertaking.  In  this 
manner  I  /settled  the  basis,  on  which  the  majesty  of  the  govern- 
ment of  a  nation  so  great,  and  of  such  extensive  territory, 
ought  to  rest.  I  declared  the  right  that  it  had  acquired  to 
adopt  the  constitution  best  suited  to  it.  I  adverted  particu- 
larly to  the  necessity  of  convoking  a  national  representation, 
not  by  the  demagogical  and  anarchical  method,  prescribed  by 
the  Spanish  constitution,  but  by  just  rules,  and  such  as  are 
suited  to  our  circumstances.  This  most  delicate  wrork  I  might 
have  accomplished  myself :  but  my  fervent  desire  to  act  right, 
made  it  appear  to  me  more  secure  to  entrust  it  to  an  assem- 
bly of  men  the  most  distinguished  for  their  talents,  probity, 
fortune  and  employments."  After  telling  them,  that  the  con- 
duct of  the  former  government  had  led  the  nation  to  the  brink 
of  a  precipice,  he  said,  "  That  in  order  not  to  fall  into  it,  it  had 
become  necessary  to  step  backwards,  not  by  the  devious  path 
that  we  had  lately  followed,  but  by  that  of  the  plan  of  Iguala  ; 
by  which  we  reached  the  difficult  and  glorious  goal  of  our  in- 
dependence. Let  us  return  boldly,  gentlemen,  and  follow  this 
sure  road,  watered  with  sweat  and  laurels  :  let  us  march  on  it 
with  a  firm  and  tranquil  step,  and  the  happiness  of  the  nation 
will  be  secured.  Let  us  bear  this  nation  along  to  the  glorious 
epoch  of  its  establishment,  in  a  peaceful,  solid,  and  stable  man- 
ner. Let  us  organize  its  representation  in  such  a  manner,  that . 


REVOLUTION    IN  MEXICO.  185 

it  shall  yield  no  other  than  the  pure,  limpid,  clear  and  general 
sound  of  the  public  wishes,  and  let  us  profit  by  the  experience 
of  the  past  for  the  future.  The  rock  on  which  we  have  struck, 
is,  that  the  sovereign  power,  by  a  most  impolitic  error,  has 
been  transferred  from  the  mass  of  the  people,  to  whom  it  ex- 
clusively belongs,  to  a  congress.  An  authority  so  powerful, 
as  not  to  be  subjected  to  any  law,  nor  to  admit  any  rule  but 
such  as  it  chooses  to  prescribe  for  itself,  must  act  in  an  arbitra- 
ry manner  ;  and  such  a  state  of  things  is  characteristic  of,  and 
peculiar  to,  a  despotism,  as  it  is  incongruous  and  repugnant 
to  a  limited  government.  Man  is  disposed  to  abuse  power  ; 
for  it  is  extremely  difficult  that  he,  who  can  do  all  that  he 
wishes,  will  not  desire  to  do  more  than  he  ought  ;  and  if,  with 
respect  to  one  man  or  a  few  persons,  it  is  imprudent  to  trust  to 
a  presumption  of  virtuous  and  voluntary  moderation,  there  is 
nothing  in  a  numerous  body  that  ought  to  inspire  greater  con- 
fidence.* It  is  true,  that  our  congress  followed  the  example 
of  the  Spanish  cortes  ;  but  whoever  copies  from  a  deformed 
model,  will  he  not  increase  its  imperfections  1  And  what  shall 
we  come  to,  if  we  follow  in  every  thing,  that  pernicious  exam- 
ple ?"  &c.  4'c. 

The  regulations  governing  the  proceedings  and  specifying 
the  powers  of  the  junta,  were  then  read  by  the  minister  of 
state.  The  junta  was  empowered  to  frame  a  constitution  ; 
but  the  ministers  were  to  be  admitted  to  discuss  the  project  of 
one,  and  even  the  ordinary  laws.  The  junta  was  in  fact  only 
the  organ  of  the  imperial  will,  and  intended  and  calculated 
rather  to  strengthen  the  absolute  authority  of  the  emperor, 
than  to  form  a  barrier  to  it.  The  financial  minister  submitted 
an  exposure  of  the  condition  of  the  public  revenue,  to  the 
junta,  from  which  it  appeared  that  the  annual  receipts  amount- 
ed to  only  eight  millions  of  dollars,  whilst  the  expenditures 
exceeded  thirteen  millions.  The  junta  decreed  a  forced  loan 
of  two  and  a  half  millions  of  dollars,  and  to  supply  the  press- 
ing exigencies  of  the  treasury,  they  ordered  the  seizure  of  the 
money  detained  at  Perote,  which  had  been  sent  by  Spanish 
merchants,  to  be  embarked  at  Vera  Cruz  ;  the  emperor  having 
first  hinted  to  the  junta  the  situation  of  this  money. t 

Iturbide  is  not  the  only  man  whose  ambition  was  greater 
than  his  talents  ;  or  who  succeeded  in  usurping  power  which 
he  had  not  the  ability  to  maintain.  It  is  fortunate  that  it  was 

*  This  strange  reasoning  proves,  if  any  thing,  that  the  powers  of 
government  cannot  be  safely  vested  anywhere,  and  that  there  can  be 
no  other  government  but  a  despotism. 

f  Poinsett's  note  on  Mexico. 
16* 


186  HISTORY    OF    THE 

so ;  as  it  would  have  been  a  reproach  to  Mexico  and  to  America, 
that  this  crude  usurpation,  this  contemptible  tyrant  should 
have  succeeded.  It  would  have  presented  one  of  the  most 
melancholy  events  in  history  ;  a  revolution  for  liberty,  result- 
ing in  a  despotic  tyranny.  It  would  have  blasted  all  the  fruits 
of  the  revolution,  retarded  the  advancement  of  political  and 
social  improvement  in  Mexico,  and  checked  its  national  pros- 
perity and  importance,  besides  affording  a  dangerous  example, 
and  a  dangerous  neighbour  to  the  American  republics.  The 
only  legitimate  object  of  a  revolution  is  the  establishment  of 
liberty  and  a  government  founded  on  the  will  of  the  people. 
If  this  object  is  lost,  all  is  lost. 

Iturbide  had  no  sooner  reached  the  goal  of  his  ambition,  than 
he  began  to  perceive  the  instability  of  his  power,  and  that  the 
imperial  diadem  did  not  set  so  lightly  or  securely  on  his  head, 
as  he  seems  to  have  imagined  that  it  would.  In  a  few  months 
the  disaffection  of  the  people  broke  out  into  open  revolt.  The 
republican  standard  was  first  raised  in  Soto  la  Marina,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  New  Santander,  and  as  the  disaffection  was  general  in 
the  northern  provinces,  the  people  flocked  to  it,  and  the  republi- 
cans would  have  been  formidable,  had  notCarza,  their  leader, 
been  totally  destitute  of  courage  or  capacity,  arid  fled  on  the  first 
appearance  of  the  imperial  troops.  This  revolt  occurred  in  Octo- 
ber, 1 822,  and  was  soon  followed  by  an  event  ut  Vera  Cruz,  which 
led  to  important  results.  The  royal  garrison  of  the  castle  of  San 
Juan  Uloa  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  destroy  the  works 
that  had  been  erected  in  the  suburbs  of  the  city  of  Vera  Cruz, 
which  occasioned  the  junta  to  interdict  all  intercourse  with  the 
castle,  and  all  commerce  with  Spain  ;  and  likewise  to  prohibit 
the  exportation  from  Mexico,  of  all  goods  or  money  belonging 
to  European  Spaniards.  A  correspondence  was  opened  with 
the  royal  governor  of  the  castle,  without  any  satisfactory  re- 
sult. The  emperor  finally  concluded  that  a  personal  interview 
would  lead  to  an  accommodation,  and  on  the  10th  of  Novem- 
ber he  left  his  capital,  arid  proceeded  to  Xalapa,  passing 
through  Puebla,  where,  from  the  influence  of  she  bishop,  who 
had  a  principal  agency  in  the  elevation  of  Iturbide,  he  was 
received  with  demonstrations  of  respect.  At  Xalapa,  he 
learnt  that  the  royal  governor  would,  on  no  considerations, 
leave  the  castle,  in  consequence  of  which,  commissioners 
were  appointed  by  both  parties,  to  meet  at  Vera  Cruz.  After 
considerable  discussion,  they  could  not  agree  on  terms  of  ac- 
commodation, and  separated  without  doing  any  tiling.  San- 
tana  was  governor  of  the  city  of  Vera  Cruz,  an  active  officer, 
who  had  stormed  and  taken  the  place  from  the  royalists.  A 
dispute  arose  between  him  and  Echavarri,  who  commanded 


REVOLUTION  IN  MEXICO.  187 

the  southern  division  of  the  army,  and  the  latter  officer  pre- 
ferred a  complaint  to  the  emperor,  who  immediately  summoned 
Santana  to  appear  before  him.  Knowing  how  much  the  em- 
peror was  indebted  to  him  for  his  elevation,  and  confident  of 
his  protection,  he  did  not  hesitate  to  obey  the  order  ;  but  in- 
stead of  being  treated  in  the  kind  and  friendly  manner  he  ex- 
pected, the  emperor  censured  his  conduct  with  severity,  and  dis- 
missed him  from  his  command  as  governor  of  Vera  Cruz.  His,  as- 
tonishment at  this  unexpected  treatment,  could  only  have  been 
equalled  by  his  indignation,  and  suddenly  leaving  Xalapa,  he  re- 
turned to  Vera  Cruz  with  the  greatest  expedition,  riding  day  and 
night,  arid  arrived  before  the  news  of  his  dismissal  from  his  com- 
mand. As  not  a  moment  was  to  be  lost,  he  instantly  ordered 
out  his  own  regiment,  and  laid  before  them  his  determination 
no  longer  to  support  the  despotic  arid  odious  government  of 
Ttnrbide,  who,  by  iorcibly  dissolving  the  congress,  and  his  ar- 
bitrary and  tyrannical  conduct,  had  justly  forfeited  the  confi- 
dence of  the  people  and  the  army  ;  and  concluded  by  exhort- 
ing them  to  use  their  arms  in  defence  of  the  liberties  of  their 
country,  arid  to  add  to  the  glory  they  had  acquired  in  over- 
throwing the  despotism  of  Spain,  by  prostrating  the  tyrant 
Iturbide.  These  sentiments  were  received  with  acclamation, 
as  they  were  in  accordance  with  the  opinions  of  all  the  of- 
ficers of  the  garrison,  who  had  suppressed  them  from  a  persua- 
sion that  their  commander  was  strongly  attached,  personally, 
to  the  emperor.  The  republican  standard  was  immediately 
unfurled,  and  Santana  addressed  a  letter  to  the  emperor,  re- 
minding him  how  much  he  was  indebted  to  him  for  his  eleva- 
tion, and  of  the  regard  he  had  always  entertained  for  him ;  but 
declaring  that  his  arbitrary  and  tyrannical  conduct  had  render- 
ed him  unworthy  of  the  station  he  held,  and  justly  forfeited 
the  confidence  of  the  nation,  which  he  had  reduced  to  the 
greatest  disorder  and  misery  ;  and  that  he  felt  it  his  duty  to 
lay  aside  all  personal  considerations,  when  the  liberties  of  his 
country  were  at  stake.  He  reproached  Iturbide  with  having 
violated  his  oath,  in  dissolving  the  cortes  by  force,  and  estab- 
lishing despotism  in  his  own  person  ;  declared  his  intention  of 
re-establishing  the  republic,  and  concluded  by  advising  the 
emperor  to  resign  the  crown,  and  throw  himself  on  the  gene- 
rosity of  congress. 

No  advice  is  less  likely  to  be  relished,  than  that  which  re- 
commends to  sovereigns  the  relinquishment  of  their  power,  or 
any  particle  of  it ;  and  the  emperor  instead  of  complying  with 
the  advice  of  Santana,  immediately  ordered  Echavarri  with 
his  division,  to  march  against  him.  Santana  proceeded  to 
Puente  del  Key,  and  fortified  the  place.  The  imperialists 


188  HISTORY    OF    THE 

pursued  the  republicans,  and  several  actions  were  fought  be- 
tween them,  but  none  of  a  decisive  nature.  The  people  did 
not  rally  round  the  republican  standard,  not  having  confidence 
in  Santana,  as  he  had  formerly  been  instrumental  in  promoting 
the  ambitious  projects  of  Iturbide.  Fortunately  for  Mexico, 
several  of  the  most  distinguished  of  the  republican  generals 
had  escaped  all  the  perils  to  which  they  had  been  exposed, 
and  at  this  conjuncture,  carne  forward  to  aid  the  cause  of  lib- 
erty. The  most  distinguished,  and  the  first  who  joined  the 
republican  standard,  was  Guadalupe  Victoria,  who  had  been 
secreted  in  the  mountains  from  the  period  when  by  opposing 
the  ambition  of  Iturbide,  he  had  rendered  himself  obnoxious 
to  the  tyrant.  He  was  at  first  appointed  second  in  command, 
but  Santana  perceived  that  to  inspire  the  people  with  perfect 
confidence,  it  was  necessary  to  raise  him  to  the  chief  com- 
mand. The  confidence  and  respect  which  the  public  felt  in 
a  man,  who  from  the  commencement  of  the  revolution,  under 
all  vicissitudes  of  fortune,  and  the  various  changes  which  it 
had  assumed,  had  been  distinguished,  not  more  for  his  brave- 
ry than  his  patriotic  devotion  to  the  cause  of  liberty,  and  his 
uniform  republicanism,  was  immediately  perceptible  on  his 
elevation  to  the  chief  command  of  the  republican  forces.  The 
people  flocked  to  his  standard  from  all  quarters,  and  the  spirit  of 
revolt  spread  with  rapidity  through  the  different  provinces. 
Ecliavarri,  although  a  personal  enemy  to  Santana,  joined  the 
republican  cause,  and  an  arrangement  was  entered  into  be- 
tween him  and  Victoria.  The  united  armies  sent  commission- 
ers to  Iturbide,  to  offer  him  terms  of  accommodation ;  the 
basis  of  which,  was  the  immediate  assembling  of  a  congress 
to  form  a  republican  constitution.  Iturbide  was  not  disposed 
to  treat,  but  sent  commissioners  to  Echavarri  and  his  officers, 
to  attempt  to  dissuade  them  from  their  purpose,  but  without 
success.  The  emperor  marched  with  the  small  force  he  had, 
to  Istapaluca,  a  small  town  twelve  miles  from  the  capital, 
where  he  took  an  advantageous  position.  The  power  of  Itur- 
bide crumbled  to  dust  in  less  time  than  it  had  been  acquired. 
The  example  of  the  army  under  Echavarri,  was  followed  in 
the  provinces,  and  the  defection  soon  became  general.  The 
provinces  of  Oaxaca,  Guadalaxara,  Guanaxuato,  and  San  Luis 
Potosi,  declared  against  the  imperial  government,  and  impris- 
oned the  emperor's  commanders  ;  and  Queretaro,  Valladolid, 
and  the  capitals  of  the  other  provinces,  also  seized  and  im- 
prisoned the  imperial  officers.  The  distinguished  republican 
generals,  Guerrero  and  Bravo,  who  had  remained  in  the  capi- 
tal, under  the  jealous  and  vigilant  eye  of  the  government,  es~ 


REVOLUTION   4N  MEXICO,  189 

caped,  and  returning  to  the  west,  rallied  the  people,  and  ap- 
peared in  arms  against  the  usurper. 

Under  these  portentous  circumstances,  Tturbide  made  pro- 
posals of  accommodation,  and  was  answered  by  a  demand  for 
the  immediate  assembling  of  a  national  cortes,  and  money  suf- 
ficient to  pay  the  troops.  If  the  emperor  had  been  disposed, 
he  could  not  have  complied  with  the  last  requisition,  except 
in  paper  money,  of  which  he  had  issued  four  millions  on  the 
1st  of  January  1823,  and  by  a  decree,  made  it  a  tender  for 
one  third  part  of  the  amount  of  any  debt,  and  it  was  received 
for  duties  and  taxes  in  the  same  proportion,  by  the  govern- 
ment. This  currency  immediately  and  rapidly  depreciated, 
as  was  to  have  been  expected,  and  contributed  greatly  to  in- 
crease the  discontents  of  the  people.  The  province  of  Pue- 
bla  declared  for  the  republicans,  and  a  strong  force  was  organ- 
ized in  the  capital  of  the  province,  by  the  Marquis  de  Vivan- 
co,  who  assumed  the  government  of  the  city.  The  republi- 
can army  advanced  to  Puebla,  and  here  were  joined  by  Ne- 
grete  and  several  other  distinguished  officers,  who  deserted 
the  sinking  fortunes  of  the  emperor.  The  republicans  push- 
ed forward  their  advanced  guard,  to  San  Martin  de  Tesraelu- 
cos.  *J 

The  emperor  perceiving  that  his  short  lived  reign  was  draw- 
ing to  a  close,  hastened  to  Mexico,  and  on  the  8th  of  March, 
1823,  attempted  to  assemble  those  members  of  the  old  con- 
gress who  were  in  the  capital,  to  tender  to  them  his  resigna- 
tion ;  but  few  only  could  be  induced  to  attend,  and  there  not 
being  a  quorum,  they  declined  to  act.  The  imperial  diadem 
which  once  graced  the  brow  of  Iturbide,  had  now  become  a 
crown  of  thorns  that  pierced  his  soul.  A  monarch  is  depri- 
ved of  the  solace  and  support  of  friendship,  as  those  who 
claim  to  be  his  friends,  are  not  friends  to  his  person  but  his 
power,  and  leave  him  when  that  departs.  As  the  overthrow 
of  Iturbide's  power  became  more  apparent,  his  partizans  de- 
serted him  one  after  another,  until  he  found  himself  entirely 
abandoned.  Thus  the  man  who  had  succeeded  in  acquiring 
supreme  and  despotic  power, — whose  will  was  law,  and  impli- 
citly obeyed,  in  little  more  than  one  year,  was  not  only  fallen 
so  low,  as  that  "  there  was  none  so  poor  as  to  do  him  rever- 
ence," but  was  trembling  even  for  his  life.  On  the  19th  of 
March,  1823,  he  communicated  to  the  congress  his  resignation^  ^ 
and  remarked  "That  he  accepted  the  crown  with  the  great- 
est reluctance,  and  only  to  serve  his  country  ;  but  from  the 
moment  he  perceived  that  his  retaining  possession  of  it  might 
serve,  if  not  as  a  cause,  at  least  as  a  pretext  for  civil  war,  he 
determined  to  give  it  up  ;  that  he  did  not  abdicate  before, 


190  HISTORY    OF    THE 

because  there  was  no  national  representation,  generally  recog- 
nized as  such,  to  receive  it.  That  as  his  presence  in  the 
country  might  serve  as  a  pretext  for  dissentions,  he  will  retire 
to  some  foreign  land,  and  asks  only  a  fortnight  to  prepare  for 
his  departure  ;  and  finally  solicits  congress  to  pay  his  debts." 

Immediately  on  forwarding  this  letter,  he  retired  to  Tulan- 
cingo.  This  letter  was  referred  to  a  committee,  who  reported 
against  accepting  the  renunciation  of  the  crown  by  Iturbide, 
as  that  might  be  construed  to  imply  a  right  or  lawfulness  to 
the  power  renounced  ;  but  they  recommended,  not  only  to 
grant  his  request  of  departing  from  the  country,  but  to  allow 
him  a  pension  for  the  maintenance  of  his  family  and  suite,  of 
twenty-five  thousand  dollars  a  year.  This  was  certainly  a  sin- 
gular document.  There  seems  a  strange  inconsistency  in  be- 
ing so  scrupulous  about  accepting  the  abdication  of  Iturbide, 
from  an  apprehension  that  it  might  imply  a  concession  of  his 
right  to  the  crown,  and  at  the  same  time  to  permit  him  to  retire 
on  a  princely  pension.  If,  as  was  undoubtedly  the  case,  he  had 
no  better  right  to  sovereign  power  that  that  of  usurpation  ;  he 
had  justly  forfeited  his  life,  as  guilty  of  the  greatest  of  all  trea- 
sons, that  of  overturning  by  military  force  a  free  government, 
and  establishing  a  despotism.  For  what  greater  felony  can  be 
committed,  than  to  rob  an  entire  people  of  their  liberties  ?  It 
is  to  be  presumed,  however,  that  the  liberal  conduct  towards 
Iturbide  proceeded  from  considerations  of  policy,  he  having 
many  partizans  in  the  country,  and  perhaps  in  part  from  a  regard 
to  his  services  in  breaking  down  the  royal  government :  but 
whatever  may  be  thought  of  the  propriety  of  granting  him  the. 
pension,  the  policy  was  undoubtedly  correct.  His  subsequent 
conduct,  however,  shows  how  misapplied  was  the  munificence 
of  the  government. 

The  report  of  the  committee  was  accepted,  and  the  ex-em- 
peror was  escorted  by  General  Bravo  to  Antigua,  near  Vera 
Cruz,  where,  on  the  1 1th  of  May,  1 823,  he  embarked  on  board 
of  an  English  vessel  for'Leghorn,  with  his  family  and  suite,  con- 
sisting of  twenty-five  persons. 

The  republican  troops  entered  the  capital  on  the  27th  of 
May,  and  the  old  congress  was  soon  after  assembled.  It  im- 
mediately established  a  provisional  government,  and  appointed 
a  triplicate  executive,  consisting  of  Generals  Victoria,  Bravo 
and  Negrete  ;  the  two  first  are  natives,  distinguished  for  their 
patriotism,  talents  and  services,  and  the  last  is  an  European, 
justly  esteemed  for  his  integrity  and  talents.  Steps  were  im- 
mediately taken  for  the  convocation  of  a  new  congress,  and  the 
people  in  the  election  were  careful  to  exclude  the  royalists, 
the  partizans  of  Iturbide,  and  the  advocates  for  the  plan  of 


REVOLUTION    IN    MEXICO.  191 

Iguala.  The  new  congress  assembled  and  entered  on  the  sub- 
ject of  framing  a  constitution  of  government.  This  was  now 
a  subject  that  engrossed  public  attention,  and  the  only  source 
of  division  or  dissention,  as  neither  the  royalists  or  the  adher- 
ents of  Iturbide  were  sufficiently  formidable  to  occasion  distur- 
bances among  the  people,  or  anxiety  to  the  government.  The 
people  were  divided  into  two  parties  relative  to  the  constitution, 
one  being  in  favour  of  a  confederative  government,  like  that  of 
{he  United  States,  and  the  other  preferring  a  central  or  conso- 
lidated republic  like  that  of  Colombia. 

Sometime  in  March  1823,  before  the  republican  army  en- 
tered the  capital,  General  Santana,  with  six  hundred  troops, 
sailed  from  Vera  Cruz,  and  landing  at  Tampico,  advanced  ra- 
pidly into  the  interior,  as  far  as  San  Luis  Potosi,  where  he  es- 
tablished his  head-quarters,  and  immediately  declared  himself 
protector  of  the  federal  republic.  But  as  it  was  suspected  that 
his  object  was  to  place  himself  at  the  head  of  one  of  the  two 
parties,  for  the  advancement  of  his  own  views,  he  was  not  sup- 
ported even  by  the  advocates  of  the  federal  plan.  The  gov- 
ernment having  sent  a  force  against  him,  he  was  obliged  to 
submit,  and  was  brought  to  the  capital  and  confined. 

After  the  overthrow  of  the  royal  government  by  Tturbide, 
and  the  treaty  with  O'Donoju,  on  the  basis  of  the  plan  of  Igua- 
la, Spain,  although  obstinately  refusing  to  acknowledge  the 
independence  of  Mexico,  made  no  effort  to  regain  her  author- 
ity over  it,  and  it  had  been  since  that  period,  in  point  of  fact, 
entirely  independent  of  Spain,  who  had  not  been  a  party  to 
any  of  the  dissentions  and  wars  which  had  existed.  During 
the  administration  of  Iturbide,  commissioners  were  sent  to 
Mexico  from  Spain,  but  were  not  permitted  to  enter  the  coun- 
try, and  they  had  remained  in  the  castle  of  San  Juan  de  Uloa, 
which  was  in  the  possession  of  the  royalists.  After  the  fall  of 
Iturbide,  the  Spanish  commissioners  were  allowed  to  enter  the 
Mexican  territories,  and  the  new  government  appointed  Gen- 
eral Victoria  to  treat  with  them,  and  designated  Xalapa  as  the 
place  for  the  meeting  of  the  parties.  Soon  after  the  negotia- 
tions were  commenced,  they  were  broken  off  in  consequence 
of  the  castle  of  San  Juan  Uloa,  firing  on  the  city  of  Vera 
Cruz.  This  was  occasioned  by  the  republican  government 
attempting  to  fortify  the  island  of  Sacrificios,  on  the  opposite 
point  of  land,  to  form  a  new  port  of  entry,  for  the  purpose  of 
avoiding  the  exactions  which  all  vessels  entering  the  harbor 
were  subjected  to,  by  the  governor  of  the  castle.  If  this  plan 
had  been  carried  into  execution,  it  would  have  deprived  the 
garrison  of  all  means  of  maintaining  themselves  ;  and  the  gov- 
ernor was  compelled  to  make  use  of  force  to  prevent  the  erec- 


192  HISTORY    OF    THE 

tion  of  the  works,  and  the  plan  was  obliged  to  be  relinquished. 
The  government  immediately  published  a  decree,  interdicting 
all  commercial  intercourse  with  Spain. 

After  the  departure  of  the  cidevant  emperor,  his  partizans 
attempted  to  excite  civil  commotions,  but  they  were  too  few 
in  numbers,  and  too  well  known  and  watched,  to  occasion 
any  alarm  to  the  government  or  to  endanger  the  public  tran- 
quillity. The  only  remaining  source  of  public  dissention,  was 
the  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  form  of  government  about 
to  be  established.  Congress  were  divided  as  well  as  the  peo- 
ple, on  the  subject,  and  in  some  of  the  provinces,  the  inhabi- 
tants were  thrown  into  great  alarm  and  agitation,  from  an  ap- 
prehension that  Congress,  intended  to  establish  a  central  gov- 
ernment ;  in  several  districts  the  excitement  was  so  great  as 
to  occasion  civil  commotions,  and  open  revolt.  Whether 
the  convention  intended  to  have  established  a  central  system, 
in  preference  to  a  federative  one  or  not,  these  strong  indica- 
tions of  public  opinion,  no  doubt  had  great  influence  in  induc- 
ing it  to  adopt  the  latter.  It  was  perceived  that  unanimity  in 
the  congress  could  alone  quiet  the  existing  dissentions,  and 
ensure  respect  to  the  government  which  might  be  establish- 
ed. Accordingly,  a  constitution  on  the  federative  plan,  was 
prepared  and  adopted  by  the  congress  with  great  unanimity  ; 
and  on  the  second  of  February,  1824,  was  sworn  to  in  the  cap- 
ital, amidst  the  rejoicings  and  acclamations  of  the  people.  The 
system  is  similar  to  that  of  the  United  States,  and  consists  of 
a  general  or  national  government,  and  local  or  state  govern- 
ments in  the  provinces.  After  the  adoption  of  the  system,  the 
congress  and  people  proceeded  with  order  and  harmony,  to 
organize  both  the  national  and  state  governments,  and  to  set 
all  the  political  machinery  in  operation. 

In  the  month  of  January,  previous  to  the  adoption  of  the 
constitution,  a  disturbance  occurred  in  the  provine  of  Puebla, 
in  consequence  of  General  Echavarri,  who  commanded  there, 
refusing  to  obey  the  orders  of  the  executive.  The  reason  of 
such  strange  conduct,  or  what  were  his  designs,  did  not  satis- 
factorily appear.  This  officer  is  an  European  by  birth,  but 
had  contributed  essentially  to  the  establishment  of  the  repub- 
lic, by  joining  Victoria  and  Santana,  which  became  the  signal 
for  a  general  revolt  against  Uurbide.  General  Guerrero,  at 
the  head  of  a  few  troops  marched  to  quell  the  insurrection, 
and  Echavarri  being  deserted  by  his  troops,  was  seized  and 
sent  a  prisoner  to  the  capital,  which  terminated  the  insurrec- 
tion without  bloodshed.  The  public  mind  however,  was  not 
settled,  and  this  disturbance  was  soon  followed  by  an  insur- 
rection, headed  by  one  Hernandez,  at  Cuernavaca,  which 


REVOLUTION    IN    MEXICO.  193 

General  Guerrero  was  sent  to  suppress,  and  effected  it  with- 
out difficulty.  But  not  far  from  the  same  time,  a  more  exten- 
sive and  alarming  disaffection  appeared  in  the  capital,  that 
threatened  more  serious  consequences.  A  formidable  oppo- 
sition, or  faction,  had  been  organized,  including  the  garrison 
and  its  commander,  the  object  of  which  was  to  compel  con- 
gress to  dismiss  all  the  Europeans  from  office.  The  exclusive 
employment  of  European  Spaniards,  to  the  entire  exclusion  of 
the  natives,  or  Creoles,  had  always  been  regarded,  not  only  as 
a  great  grievance  in  itself,  but  as  the  fertile  source  of  the  op- 
pressions of  the  colonial  system.  The  new  government  had 
neglected  to  remove  this  source  of  political  evil,  but  suffered 
the  Europeans  still  to  hold  most  of  the  offices,  in  consequence, 
as  is  supposed,  of  attaching  a  mistaken  importance  to  their 
being  familiar  with  the  routine  of  public  duties,  and  from  their 
connexion  by  marriage  with  the  wealthy  and  influential  Creole 
families.  This  conduct  of  the  government  was  regarded  by 
many  as  equally  impolitic  and  unjust,  and  the  garrison,  with 
Lobato  at  their  head,  demanded  of  Congress  the  immediate 
removal  of  all  European  Spaniards  from  office.  Congress 
with  great  firmness  resolved  to  maintain  its  authority ;  and 
with  the  assistance  of  the  numerous  friends  of  the  govern- 
ment, made  great  exertions  to  induce  the  garrison  to  return  to 
their  duty,  and  to  collect  and  imbody  a  force  sufficient  to  intim- 
idate, and,  if  necessary,  to  put  down  the  insurgents.  Instead 
of  complying  with  the  demand,  congress  ordered  Lobato  to 
appear  befoffe  them,  and  after  two  days'  negotiation,  he  deliv- 
cred  himself  up  to  the  government,  and  in  consideration  there- 
of  was  pardoned.  Lieutenant-colonel  Staboli,  an  Italian  by 
birth,  and  some  other  officers  obstinately  refused  to  submit  ; 
but  were  finally  abandoned  by  their  adherents,  who  delivered 
them  up  to  the  government,  and  Staboli  was  sentenced  to  be 
shot,  by  a  court  martial.* 

There  is  but  one  evidence,  that  a  king  is  more  than  mortal, 
and  this  fact  is  fully  proved  by  history,  that  when  an  indi- 
vidual has  once  become  a  king,  he  can  no  longer  live  as  a  man. 
It  is,  with  him,  aut  Gesar,  aut  nihil — he  must  be  a  king,  or  no- 
thing ;  he  cannot  exist  as  a  man.  This  truth  was  not  more 
strongly  illustrated  by  the  great  Napoleon,  than  by  the  humble 
Iturbide,  The  former's  example,  and  all  the  lessons  of  his- 
tory,, were  lost  on  the  cidevant  emperor  of  Mexico,  and  the 
generosity  of  the  government  towards  him,  instead  of  produc- 
ing a  deep  sense  of  gratitude,  and  preparing  his  mind  to  be 
content  to  follow  the  paths  of  wisdom,  which  are  pleasantness 

*  Poiosett's  notes  on  Mexico. 
Vofc.  I.  17 


194  HISTORY  OF  THE 

and  peace,  probably  contributed  to  lead  him  into  the  mad 
course  of  ambition,  which  proved  his  ruin.  Imperial  power 
appears  never  to  have  been  absent  from  his  mind,  after  his 
banishment  from  Mexico.  Whether  he  had  any  correspond- 
ence with  his  partisans  in  the  Mexican  Republic,  or  not,  it  is 
certain  that  he  soon  meditated  returning  to  Mexico.  He  was 
the  more  in  haste  to  return,  as  he  asserts,  from  an  apprehen- 
sion that  the  ministers  of  the  powers  of  the  holy  alliance,  at 
the  Court  of  Tuscany,  would  attempt  to  frustrate  his  inten- 
tions. He  arrived  in  England  in  February,  1824,  when  he  ad- 
dressed a  letter  to  the  Mexican  Congress,  in  which  he  commu- 
nicates his  intention  of  returning  to  America,  although  in  di- 
rect violation  of  the  decree  of  the  8th  of  April,  1822  ;  and 
gives,  as  a  reason,  the  hostile  designs  of  the  powers  of  Eu- 
rope against  the  new  world,  which  would  soon  be  developed  ; 
and  his  wish  to  be  in  a  situation  where  he  might  fly  to  the  aid 
of  his  countrymen,  if  they  should  desire  his  services.  He  sub- 
mits to  the  congress,  whether  his  services,  in  a  military  capa- 
city only,  may  not  be  of  some  utility,  in  uniting  the  public 
voice,  and  contributing  with  his  sword  to  secure  the  independ- 
ence and  liberty  of  his  country.  He  assures  the  congress  of 
his  ability  to  bring  arms,  ammunition,  clothing,  and  money ; 
declares  that  his  only  object  is  to  aid  in  securing  the  liberty  of 
Mexico,  and  that  when  that  is  established,  he  shall  cheerfully 
retire  to  private  life.t  Being  apprised  of  his  intentions,  con- 
gress, instead  of  abrogating  the  law  by  which  he  was  exiled, 
or  inviting  him  to  return,  to  assist  in  a  military  capacity  in  se- 
curing the  liberties  of  his  country,  immediately  passed  a  de- 
cree, declaring  Iturbide  a  traitor  and  outlaw,  the  first  moment 
he  should  enter  any  part  of  the  territory  of  the  republic,  un- 
der any  title  or  pretence  whatsoever  ;  also  declaring  all  per- 
sons traitors,  who  should,  by  any  means  whatever,  aid  or  en- 
courage Itur hide's  return  to  the  republic,  or  any  other  foreign 
invader,  and  that  they  should  be  judged  conformably  to  the 
law  of  the  27th  of  September,  1823.  This  decree  bore  date 
the  28th  of  April,  1824  ;  and  the  executive  was  charged  with 
its  execution,  and  with  causing  it  to  be  published  and  circu- 
lated through  the  confederacy.  These  effective  measures  did 
not  prevent  a  conspiracy  being  formed  in  the  capital,  for  the 
purpose  of  overturning  the  present  government,  and  the  re- 
storation of  Iturbide,  which  was  afterwards  discovered. 

The  constitutional  congress  passed  a  decree  on  the  28th  of 
June,  1824,  for  the  establishment  of  public  faith  and  national 
credit,  which  recognizes  the  debts  contracted  under  the  gov- 

f  See  his  letter. 


DEVOLUTION  IN  MEXICO.  1 95 

eminent  of  the  viceroys,  to  the  17th  of  September,  1810,  when 
the  colonial  government  was  considered  as  abrogated  by  the 
will  of  the  nation  ;  and  all  debts  contracted  with  the  Mexi- 
can people  by  the  viceroys,  where  the  loans  were  made  by 
compulsion  or  involuntarily,  from  the  17th  September,  1810, 
to  the  entrance  of  the  Mexican  army  into  the  capital  in  the 
year  1821.  The  decree  also  recognizes  all  debts  contracted 
for  the  service  of  the  nation  by  the  independent  chiefs,  from 
the  declaration  of  independence,  to  the  entrance  of  the  aymy 
into  the  capital,  and  those  of  the  army  of  Iguala,  or  liberating 
army,  until  its  occupation  of  the  capital  ;  and  also  all  debts 
contracted  by  the  established  governors,  from  the  first  epoch 
of  independence.  This  decree  is  founded  on  the  principle, 
as  it  respects  the  authority  of  Spain,  that  the  Mexican  nation 
was  not  lawfully  subjected  to  that  authority,  after  the  declara- 
tion of  its  wishes  for  independence,  and  therefore  it  does  not 
acknowledge  the  loans  which  were  voluntarily  made  to  the 
viceroys  after  that  period,  as  such  an  act  was  affording  volun- 
tary aid  to  an  unlawful  government,  attempting  to  enslave  the 
nation,  and  in  one  sense,  was  an  act  of  hostility  against  the 
rightful  government.  It  seems  to  be  somewhat  doubtful, 
whether  the  debts  contracted  by  Iturbide  after  his  dissolution 
of  the  congress,  are  included  in  this  decree  ;  the  debts  of  the 
liberating  army  are  recognized  down  to  the  time  of  its  enter- 
ing the  capital  only  ;  so  that  there  is  no  clause  in  the  decree, 
which  would  include  the  debts  created  by  Iturbide,  unless  it 
is  that  recognizing  those  of  the  "  established  governors."  We 
should  think  that  this  was  intended  to  include  the  contracts  of 
Iturbide,  during  his  rash  and  foolish  usurpation,  as  he  was  an 
established  governor  de  facto.  On  the  13th  of  July,  the  con- 
gress passed  a  decree  prohibiting  the  importation  of  slaves, 
under  the  penalty  of  confiscation  of  the  vessel  and  its  cargo, 
if  any,  and  the  captain,  owner,  and  purchaser  of  the  slaves,  to 
suffer  ten  years'  imprisonment.  Slaves  were  declared  free  the 
moment  they  land  on  the  Mexican  soil. 

The  conspiracy  in  the  Mexican  capital  was  discovered,  and 
twenty  persons  implicated,  were  arrested,  among  whom  were 
several  general  officers,  a  number  of  colonels,  and  some  citi- 
zens of  distinction.  The  papers  of  the  conspirators  were 
headed,  "  God,  independence,  and  the  hero  of  Iguala  ;"  it  is 
said,  that  a  woman  acted  as  secretary.  The  criminals  were 
brought  to  trial  before  a  council  of  war,  and  two  of  them  sen- 
tenced to  death,  and  the  rest  to  perpetual  banishment.  After 
this  premature  explosion  of  the  conspiracy,  the  infatuated 
Iturbide  landed  at  Soto  la  Marina  in  disguise,  on  the  1 4th  of 
July,  1824.  He  came  in  an  English  brig  with  .Charles  de 


196  HISTORY    OF   THE 

Beneskie,  a  foreigner,  who  pretended  that  his  object  was  to 
treat  with  the  Mexican  government  concerning  a  plan  of  co- 
lonization, and  that  he  had  powers  for  that  purpose,  from  three 
Irish  capitalists  of  London.  Beneskie  presented  himself  to 
general  Garza,  military  commandant,  who  inquired  concerning 
Iturbide,  arid  was  informed  by  Beneskie,  that  he  left  him  at 
London,  residing  quietly  with  his  family.  Iturbide  being  dis- 
guised, passed  himself  as  the  companion  of  Beneskie,  who 
was  permitted  to  go  into  the  country,  and  thus  attempted  to 
advance  into  the  interior.  On  the  1 6th,  general  Garza  was 
informed  by  an  officer  who  commanded  a  detachment  of  troops, 
that  he  had  seen  Beneskie,  with  another  person  in  disguise, 
proceeding  into  the  interior,  which  excited  his  suspicion.  Gen- 
eral Garza  immediately  went  in  pursuit  with  some  troops,  and 
overtook  them  at  Arrogas,  and  immediately  recognized,  in  the 
disguised  person,  Don  Augustin  Iturbide,  arrested  him  and 
conveyed  him  under  a  strong  guard  to  Soto  la  Marina.  Gen- 
eral Garza  communicated  the  arrest  of  Iturbide  t  j  the  pro- 
vincial congress  of  the  state  of  Tamanlipas,  then  in  session, 
which  resolved  that  the  decree  of  the  general  congress  of  the 
28th  of  April,  1824,  be  carried  into  immediate  effect, -'and  or- 
dered the  minister  of  state  to  cause  Iturbide  to  be  immediately 
executed.  Accordingly,  he  was  shot  in  the  town  of  Padilla, 
on  the  19th  of  July,  1824.  Thus  terminated  the  career  of 
Don  Augustin  Iturbide,  the  first,  and  it  is  hoped  it  may  long 
be  said  the  last  usurper  of  sovereign  power  in  America.  The 
wife  and  two  children  of  Iturbide  accompanied  him,  the  rest  of 
his  family  and  suite  were  left  in  London.  This  event  relieved 
the  republic  from  one  source  of  apprehension,  and  one  cause 
of  the  vacillation  of  public  opinion  ;  by  annihilating  forever 
the  hopes  and  designs  of  the  partizans  of  a  military  usurper. 
It- tended  to  concentrate  public  opinion  in  favour  of  the  polit- 
ical system  which  had  been  adopted,  and  to  give  stability  and 
energy  to  the  government. 

Since  this  period,  the  public  tranquillity  has  not  been  dis- 
turbed in  Mexico  by  civil  commotions  ;  the  government  ha^ 
been  administered  with  success,  and  has  enjoyed  the  increas- 
ing confidence  of  all  classes  of  the  population. 

.  The  only  foreign  relations  which  the  Mexican  federation 
has  established,  is  with  the  United  States,  and  the  independent 
governments  of  South  America. 

The  Spaniards  still  retained  possession  of  the  strong  fortress 
of  St.  Juan  Uloa,  which,  commanding  the  entrance  into  the 
port  of  Vera  Cruz,  greatly  deranged  the  Mexican  commerce, 
by  exactions  from  all  vessels  entering  the  harbour.  This  was 
the  more  vexatious,  because  of  there  being  no  seaport  to  which 


REVOLUTION    IN    MEXICO.  197 

the  trade  of  Vera  Cruz  could  be  transferred.  The  annoyance 
\vhich  the  castle  occasioned  to  the  commerce  of  the  country, 
united  with  the  desire  to  reduce  the  last  strong  hold  of  Span-* 
ish  power  in  Mexico,  rendered  the  government  and  the  nation 
anxious  to  accellerate  an  event  which  it  was  evident  could  not 
be  long  delayed.  The  superiority  of  the  Mexican  navy  to 
that  of  the  Spanish,  prevented  the  governor  general,  Cappin- 
ger,  from  receiving  any  re-enforcements,  or  even  supplies,  from 
abroad,  whilst  the  garrison  continually  wasted  away  by  disease 
and  hardships,  till  they  at  last  became  reduced  to  a  handful  of 
men.  Still  the  governor  obstinately  refused  to  capitulate.  At 
length,  however,  the  time  arrived  when  he  could  hold  out  no 
longer,  and  accordingly,  on  the  18th  of  November,  1821,  the 
castle  surrendered,  to  the  great  joy,  both  of  Vera  Cruz  and  all 
Mexico.  The  garrison  (except  the  sick,  who  were  conveyed 
to  Vera  Cruz,)  were,  with  the  governor,  sent  to  Havana. 

Thus  the  Spanish  flag,  which,  since  the  clays  of  Cortes,  had 
been  a  memorial  of  the  slavery  and  debasement  of  the  country 
of  Montezuma,  ceased  to  wjave  in  any  part  of  its  territories — it 
was  struck,  never,  it  is  hoped,  to  be  raised  again  in  Mexico. 

Mexico,  as  well  as  the  other  independent  states,  at  one  pe- 
riod felt  some  apprehension  that  the  allied  powers  in  Europe, 
which  interfered  in  the  internal  concerns  of  Spain,  would  ex- 
tend their  kind  offices  to  her  possessions  on  this  side  the  At- 
lantic ;  but  the  disposition  manifested  by  Great-Britain  has  re- 
moved such  apprehensions,  as  her  ministers  have  declared,  that 
England  would  not  agree  to  any  cession  Spain  might  make  of 
the  states  which  were  de  facto  released  from  her  dominion. 

Mexico  has  probably  received  less  aid  from  foreigners,  than 
most  of  the  other  new  republics  ;  some  enterprises  have  been 
undertaken  from  the  United  States  against  the  Texas  country, 
but  these  have  had  no  influence  on  the  great  contest  ;  and 
some  individuals  from  the  United  States  and  the  British  isles 
have  engaged  in  the  Mexican  service  ;  but  she  has  had  no  for- 
eign succour  of  any  importance  ;  the  Mexican  patriots  have 
maintained  the  long  and  sanguinary  struggle  alone,  without  al- 
lies and  without  assistance  ;  and  by  their  own  valour  and  per- 
severance, have  overcome  both  foreign  and  domestic, tyranny. 

The  patriots  of  Mexico,  as  well  as  those  of  the  other  parts 
of  America,  formerly  Spanish,  made  an  early  attempt  to  secure 
the  countenance,  if  not  assistance,  of  the  United  States.  In 
1811,  Don  B.  Gutierrez  was  sent  by  the  patriots  of  Mexico  as 
their  agent  or  commissioner  to  Washington,  where  he  contin- 
ued until  nearly  the  close  of  the  following  year,  at  which  time 
he  joinedToledo  in  an  expedition  against  the  eastern  internal 
provinces,  In  1816  the  Mexican  congress  sent  Doctor  Her- 


198  HISTORY  OF  THE 

rera  to  the  United  States.  But  these  missions  were  produc- 
tive of  no  other  advantage  than  the  promotion  in  the  breasts  of 
our  citizens,  feelings  of  friendship  and  sympathy  for  a  people 
who  were  struggling  and  suffering  for  the  same  rights,  the  at- 
tainment of  which  a  few  years  since  had  cost  the  United  States 
so  much  blood  and  treasure.  But  for  our  government  to  have 
assisted  the  Spanish  colonies  would  have  been  violating  the 
fundamental  principles  of  the  consjitution  and  the  genius  of 
our  foreign  policy.  Hence  it  is  that  congress,  in  1817,  passed 
an  act  for  the  more  effectually  preserving  the  neutrality  of  the 
United  States,  which  authorized  the  president  to  prevent  the 
sale  of  vessels  of  war  by  the  citizens  of  the  United  Slates  to 
the  subjects  of  any  foreign  power,  and  prohibiting  the  expor- 
tation of  arms  or  ammunition,  except  bonds  were  given  as  a  se- 
curity against  their  being  conveyed  to  either  of  the  belligerant 
parries.  In  consequence  of  this,  an  expedition  which  was  pre- 
paring at  New-Orleans  in  i815,  arid  destined  against  the  north- 
eastern provinces  of  Mexico,  was  prevented  from  marching,  by 
u  proclamation  of  the  president. 

,Near  the  close  of  the  year  the  president  appointed  commis- 
sioners to  visit  some  of  the  South  American  states,  which 
claimed  to  be  independent  ;  and  in  1822,  congress  formally 
acknowledged  the  independence  ,of  Mexico  and  the  other  re- 
publics of  the  south.  Mr.  Poinsett  was  afterwards  commis- 
sioned as  resident  minister  from  the  United  States,  and  has; 
remained  in  Mexico  in  that  capacity  ever  since. 

Great-Britain  has  acknowledged  the  independence  of  Mex- 
ico, not  only  by  the  recognition  of  her  flag  and  the  pursuits  of 
commerce,  but  by, the  establishment  of  political  regulations. 
The  British  government  has  recently  sent  a  charge  d'affairs 
to  the  Mexican  government,  and  has  for  some  time  had  con- 
suls and  commercial  agents  in  the  country  ;  her  commerce 
with  Mexico  being  very  important  and  constantly  increasing. 
By  the  last  intelligence  from  Europe,  it  is  stated  that  France 
had  secretly  acknowledged  the  independence  of  the  Mexican 
and  South  American  republics  ;  but  whether  this  be  correct 
or  not,  France,  Holland,  Portugal,  and  most  of  the  other  com- 
mercial powers  of  Europe,  admit  the  Mexican  flag  into  their 
ports,  maintain  commercial  relations  with  the  republic,  and 
have  consuls  and  commercial  agents  residing  there. 

The  Mexican  patriots  received  little  or  no  assistance  from 
abroad,  except  in  funds,  and  not  that  until  the  contest  was  de- 
cided. The  war  had  destroyed  the  machinery  and  stopped  the 
operations  of  the  mines,  destroyed  the  government  magazines 
of  tobacco,  and  essentially  impaired  every  branch  of  revenue, 
whilst  at  the  same  lime  it  bad  augmented  h  ,  ratio  tho 


REVOLUTION1    IN    MEXICO*  199 

expenses  of  the  government  Whilst  the  colonial  authority 
existed,  the  patriots  secured  the  public  property  for  their 
own  use,  and  destroyed  what  they  could  not  thus  appropriate  ; 
both  parties  had  recourse  to  forced  loans.  These  causes, 
together  with  the  devastation  of  a  civil  war,  and  the  suspension 
of  industry,  had  so  impoverished  the  country  that  the  revenue 
vv7as  almost  entirely  annihilated,  and  the  government  which 
.succeeded  the  overthrow  of  Itui'bide  was  placed  under  the 
most  distressing  embarrassments.  Until  the  resources  of  the 
country  could  be  called  into  action,  the  only  relief  was  from 
loans.  To  supply  the  immediate  wants,  a  million  and  a  half 
of  dollars  were  borrowed  of  the  house  of  Robert  Staples  &,  Co., 
London,  who  had  a  partner  in  Mexico  ;  and  afterwards  a  loan 
of  twenty  millions  of  dollars  was  obtained  of  Barclay,  Herring, 
Richardson  &  Co.  of  the  same  place.  In  1824,  Mexico  made 
an  additional  loan  ;  the  whole  of  their  loans  in  England  amount- 
ing to  thirty  millions,  besides  their  domestic  debt.  But  the  re- 
sources of  the  country  are  great,  and  are  rapidly  developing 
themselves.  The  government  have  made  great  efforts  to  re- 
trieve the  condition  of  the  treasury,  by  introducing  a  rigid  sys- 
tem of  economy,  and  creating  an  entire  new  system  of  finance. 
And  such  is  the  activity  given  to  commercial  enterprise,  by 
just  and  equitable  laws,  that  the  duties  on  imports  and  tonage 
are  even  at  this  time  very  considerable,  and  will  eventually, 
independent  of  the  mining  and  agricultural  interests,  become  a 
source  of  abundant  revenue  to  Mexico. 

The  plan  of  Bolivar*  for  forming  a  general  confederacy  has 
bee.n  zealously  seconded  by  Mexico.  This  plan  was  commu- 
nicated by  the  liberator,  (so  is  Bolivar  styled  by  his  country- 
men) as  president  of  Colombia,  to  the  other  republics,  early 
HI  1823,  and  on  the  6th  of  June,  of  that  year,  a  treaty  was  con- 
cluded between  Peru  and  Colombia  for  carrying  it  into  effect. 
Don  Miguel  Santa  Maria,  minister  from  Colombia,  proposed 
this  union  to  the  Mexican  government  during  the  usurpation 
of  Iturbide,  but  without  success ;  but  after  the  establishment 
of  the  republican  government  the  negotiations  were  renewed, 
and  on  the  3d  of  October,  1823,  a  treaty  was  signed  by  the 
ministers  of  the  two  republics,  having  for  its  object  the  pro- 
motion of  a  confederacy  or  family  compact,  designed  to  unite 
all  the  new  states  for  the  defence^  of  their  liberty  and  indepen- 
dence. This  body  will  also  take  cognizance  of  all  cases  of 
difficulty  or  misunderstanding  which  may  hereafter  arise  be- 


The  man,  to  whom,  in  a  great  measure,  is  owing  the  iodepend- 
e  of  all  South  America. 
\i\rn  in  the  history  of  the  rev 


ence  of  all  South  America.       A  particular  account  Tvill  be  giren  of 
evolution  iu  Colombia. 


200  HISTORY  OF  TH£ 

tween  the  governments  of  the  different  republics.  Some  of 
the  new  republics  not  having  agreed  to  the  proposition,  no- 
thing further  was  done  until  the  7th  of  December,  1824,  when 
Bolivar,  as  the  head  of  the" republic  of  Peru,  addressed  a  cir- 
cular to  the  several  republics,  inviting  them  to  appoint  pleni- 
potentiaries to  meet  at  Panama,  and  install  the  congress  of  the 
confederacy.  Victoria,  president  of  Mexico,  answered  the 
circular  of  the  liberator  on  the  23d  of  February  following. 
Cordially  approving  the  measure,  he  says,  had  it  been  suffer- 
ed to  rest  much  longer,  he  intended  to  have  taken  the  lead 
himself,  and  send  a  despatch  to  the  president  of  Peru,  propo- 
sing the  same  course. 

He  says  he  shall  appoint  his  plenipotentiaries,  and  send 
them  to  PaRama,  as  soon  as  he  is  informed  of  the  time  of  as- 
sembling the  congress  ;  and  adds  that  through  his,  ministers  at 
Washington,  he  has  invited  the  President  of  the  United  States 
to  send  plenipotentiaries  to  the  congress.  The  Mexican  gov- 
ernment appointed  its  representatives,  who  repaired  to  Pana- 
ma near  the  close  of  the  year  1825.  Mexico  continues  tran- 
quil, and  every  thing  indicates  the  stability  of  the  political  sys- 
tem, and  prosperity  of  the  Nation.  The  states  appear  to  be 
satisfied  with  the  federal  government,  and  are  forming  consti- 
tutions, and  organizing  their  authorities,  conformably  to  the 
constitution  of  the  Union.  The  distant,  and  isolated  state  of 
Yucatan,  has  sent  deputies  to  the  national  Congress  at  Mexi- 
ico,  porclaimed  a  constitution,  and  organized  a  government,  at 
the  head  of  which  is  Jose  F.  Lopez,  who  has  been  elected 
governor.  The  constitution  of  the  State  of  Mechoacan,  was 
also  sworn  to  by  the  public  authorities  on  the  20th  of  June, 
1825.  A  special  session  of  the  national  congress  was  con- 
vened at  Mexico,  by' the  President,  on  the  4th  of  August, 
1825.  President  Yictora  in  his  message,  congratulates  the 
representatives  upon  their  not  having  been  convened,  to  provide 
against  foreign  invasion,  or  to  quell  internal  commotions,  and 
adds  that  the  republic,  prosperous  and  at  peace,  advances  un- 
obstructed in  her  political  career  ;  that  in  its  infancy  it  has 
obtained  the  respect,  and  admiration  of  the  world.  "  The 
government"  says  he  "is  engaged  in  a  system  of  defence  ; 
the  republic  is  invincible  ;  its  sons  feeling  the  dignity,  and  an- 
imated by  the  spirit  of  freemen,  will  bravely  defend  the 
rights  of  their  country."  The  president  urges  the  establish- 
ment of  tribunals  of  justice,  which  appear  not  to  have  been 
organised  since  the  new  system  went  into  operation,  and  for 
want  of  which,  he  says  disorder  and  confusion  will  ensue.  It 
•would  not  seem  that  "the  executive  was  empowered  to  estab- 
lish judicial  tribunals,  and  he  informs  the  congress  that  his 


REVOLUTION    IN    MEXICO.  201 

profound  regard  for  the  separation  and  independence  of  the 
different  branches  of  government,  has  prevented  his  exer- 
cising the  authority,  reposed  on  him  by  the  nation.  The  mes- 
sage also  recommends  further  provisions  for  securing  the  lib- 
erty of  the  press  ;  reform  in  the  treasury,  the  more  perfect 
organization  of  the  land  and  naval  forces,  the  conclusion  of 
treaties  with  maritime  nations,  and  for  the  protection  and  en- 
couragement of  the  commerce  of  the  republic.  The  presi- 
dent speaks  with  pride  of  the  good  order  of  society,  the  mild- 
ness of  the  laws,  and  the  protection  they  afford,  and  of  the 
fame  of  Mexican  opulence,  having  attracted  a  vast  concourse 
of  foreigners  into  the  country,  and  submits  to  congress  the 
propriety  of  encouraging  their  enterprise,  by  exclusive  privi- 
leges. 

The  nation  is  tranquillized,  and  faction  has  subsided  ;  it  is 
not  only  in  the  enjoyment  of  independence,  but  of  peace  and 
security,  which  are  the  first  fruits  of  republican  institutions. 
The  power  of  Spain  is  annihilated,  and  the  government,  re- 
spected and  energetic,  is  advancing  steadily  in  the  great  work 
of  regenerating  the  nation,  With  such  distinguished  patriots 
and  enlightened  statesmen  as  Guadalupe  Victoria  and  gener- 
al Bravo,  the  president  and  vice-president,  Alaman,  secretary 
of  state,  and  others  less  known,  but  perhaps  not  less  worthy, 
at  the  head  of  affairs,  we  have  every  thing  to  hope.  The  mea- 
sures of  the  government,  hitherto,  have  been  marked  by  wis- 
dom, foresight,  and  political  sagacity.  The  administration 
combines  vigour  with  a  respect  for  the  rights  of  the  people 
and  of  the  states,  and  with  a  sacred  regard  for  the  constitu- 
tion, [t  has  reduced  the  arrny,  adopted  measures  for  the  or- 
ganization of  a  national  militia,  and  acquired  a  respectable  ma- 
rine, fully  adequate  to  the  defence  of  the  country  against 
Spain.  It  has  adopted  a  system  of  primary  education,  re-or- 
ganized the  old  colleges,  and  established  new  ones  ;  corrected 
some  of  the  abuses  of  the  ecclesiastical  system,  restored  the 
natives  to  the  rights  of  men  and  citizens,  and  encouraged  them 
in  habits  of  industry.  Freemasonry,  at  the  very  time  that  it  is 
proscribed  in  Spain,  is  introduced  into  Mexico,  under  the  pat- 
ronage of  the  officers  of  the  government.  A  lodge  has  been 
installed  in  the  capital  by  Mr.  Poinsett,  the  minister  of  the  Uni- 
ted States  ;  and  liberal  principles  seem  rapidly  gaining  ground. 

The  Mexican  republic  has  a  larger  territory  than  that  of  the 
original  United  States,  with  a  milder  climate,  and  greater  na- 
tional resources  ;  it  has  nearly  twice  the  population  the  North 
American  states  had  at  the  period  of  their  separation  from 
Great-Britain,  although  its  character  is  inferior  ;  it  has  made 
our  institutions  the  moddel  of  their  own,  and  what  reason  is 


202     HISTORY    OF    THE    REVOLUTION  IN 

there  to  doubt  that  their  career  will  be  as  successful  and  glo- 
rious as  has  been  that  of  the  republic  of  the  north  1  If  we  had 
brave  generals,  distinguished  patriots  and  enlightened  states- 
men, so  has  she  ;  if  we  had  a  Washington,  she  has  a  Victoria, 
who  is  scarcely  less  entitled  to  be  regarded  as  the  father  of  hi^ 
country.  If  we  have  preserved  onr  freedom,  guarding  it 
against  all  tendencies  to  despotism  on  the  one  hand,  and  pop- 
ular anarchy  on  the  other,  have  avoided  civil  commotions  with- 
in, and  defended  ourselves  from  foreign  aggression  and  vio- 
lence, who  can  say  that  Mexico  will  not  be  equally  successful  / 
The  republican  institutions  of  the  United  States  were  in  a  great 
measure  an  experiment ;  but  Mexico  has  the  light  of  our  ex- 
ample to  direct  her  course  ;  she  has  copied  from  a  correct 
model,  and  it  now  only  remains  for  her  to  preserve  the  likeness 
of  the  copy  to  the  original,  and  her  destiny  will  not  be  less  glo* 
rious  than  her  illustrious  prototype,  the  first  American  repub- 
lic. The  influence  of  liberty  is  the  same  every  wher^e  ;  in  the 
torrid  as  in  the  temperate  zone,  on  the  table-lands  of  Mexico 
as  on  the  rugged  hills  of  New-England. 

The  Mexican  territory,  like  that  of  the  United  States,  is,  a 
large  portion  of  it,  unsettled,  and  in  a  state  of  nature,  and  is 
capacious  enough  to  carve  out  states,  which  would  double  the 
present  number,  as  has  already  been  done  in  the  northern  con- 
federacy. The  vast  interior  regions  of  the  east,  north,  and 
west,  are  very  fertile,  enjoying  a  fine  climate,  possessing  great 
facilities  and  advantages  for  settlements,  and  are  capable  of 
sustaining  an  immensejpopulation.  Mexico  affords  flattering 
prospects  to  foreign  emigrants,  and  the  government  is  fully 
sensible  of  the  advantages  of  recruiting  its  population  from  oth- 
er nations.  It  is  no  longer  prophesy  to  say,  that  the  time  is 
not  distant  when  there  will  be  two  great  republics  in  North 
America,  each  uniting  numerous  subordinate  republics,  and 
possessing  a  vast  population,  free  and  enlightened,  enjoying 
all  the  blessings  of  liberty  and  republican  institutions. 


SKETCH 

OF  THE 

HISTORY  AND  PRESENT  STATE 

OF 

GUATEMALA. 

CHAPTER  XI. 

General  divisions  of  the  country — its  mountains,  rivers,  bays. 
and  harbours — the  country  subject  to  earthquakes — agricul- 
tural productions  of  the  country — commerce — civil  divisions 
— -principal  towns — Guatamala — Leon — government  and  his- 
tory. 

THE  Republic  of  Guatamala,  or  of  the  United  Provinces  of 
the  Centre  of  America,  comprises  the  territory  that  was  for- 
merly included  in  the  captain-generalcy  of  Guatamala,  with 
the  exception  of  the  territory  of  Chiapa,  which  has  since  been 
attached  to  the  Mexican  federation.  The  former  captain- 
generalcy  extended  from  about  82  degrees  to  94  degrees  of 
west  longitude,  and  from  8  to  17  degrees  of  north  latitude. 
The  territory  of  the  present  Republic  of  the  Centre  of  Amer- 
ica, is  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  province  of  Chiapa  ;  on 
the  north-west,  by  Yucatan  ;  on  the  south-east  by  Veragua, 
in  Colombia  ;  on  the  south  and  south-west,  by  the  Pacific  ; 
and  on  the  north  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  or  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
Its  length  along  the  coast  may  be  estimated  at  about  seven 
hundred  miles.  The  distance,  from  sea  to  sea,  in  no  place 
exceeds  four  hundred  miles,  but  at  each  end,  it  is  not  half 
that  distance.  This  territory  formerly  composed  of  fifteen 
provinces,  is  now  divided  into  five  states.  The  Pacific  coast 
of  this  territory,  like  that  of  Peru,  is  traversed  by  the  ridge 
of  the  Andes,  which  presents  several  lofty  peaks,  to  the 
height  of  nearly  fifteen  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea. 

The  waters  of  this  territory  are  unrivalled  for  their  conven* 


204  SKETCH  OF    THE   HISTORY    AND 

ience,  and  the  great  facilities  they  afford  to  commercial  inter- 
course with  every  other  part  of  the  world.  The  whole  south- 
ern and  south-western  border  of  the  country,  is  washed  by  the 
gentle  Pacific,  the  queen  of  oceans  ;  and  the  whole  of  its 
northern  border,  by  the  Atlantic,  or  commodious  Gulf  of  Mex- 
ico, the  great  Mediterranean  Sea  of  the  American  continent. 
Both  the  Pacific  and  the  Atlantic  coasts  are  indented  with 
numerous  bays  and  harbours  ;  tfie  most  considerable  of  which 
is  the  bay  of  Honduras,  on  the  Atlantic  side.  The  bottom  of 
this  bay  communicates  with  an  extensive  sheet  of  water,  cal- 
led the  Gulf,  or  Lake  of  Dolee.  Into  this  gulf  are  dis- 
charged several  streams,  the  principal  of  which  is  the  Rio  de 
Verapaz.  The  most  considerable  interior  waters  of  this  ter- 
ritory, are  the  lakes  Nicaragua  and  Leon  which  are  connected 
together,  forming  the  most  extensive  and  beautiful  sheets  of 
water,  nearly  three  hundred  miles  in  circumference.  They 
discharge  their  waters  into  the  ocean,  by  the  river  San  Juan, 
the  course  of  which  is  about  90  miles.  The  waters  of  the 
Nicaragua,  and  its  outlets,  are  said  to  furnish  one  of  the  most 
favourable  and  practicable  routes  for  a  ship  canal,  or  water 
communication,  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific.  The  dis- 
tance from  Lake  Leon,  (which  communicates,  as  has  been 
observed,  with  Lake  Nicaragua,)  to  the  Pacific  ocean,  is  said 
by  some  authorities  to  be  thirty  miles,  and  by  others,  to  be  on- 
ly fifteen  ;  the  land  is  level  all  the  way  across  to  the  Pacific. 
It  is  stated,  that  the  outlet  of  the  Nicaragua,  the  San  Juan, 
might  be  so  deepened  with  little  expense,  as  to  be  made  navi- 
gable. A  survey  of  this  route  is  already  projected ;  and 
should  it  be  carried  into  effect,  and  the  report  be  favourable, 
it  is  not  improbable  that  this  great  work  of  uniting  the  waters 
of  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic,  which  has  awakened  the  attention 
of  this  age  of  enterprise  and  improvement,  may  soon  be  un- 
dertaken and  finally  accomplished,  by  which  event  the  Nicara- 
gua and  its  waters  will  become  the  grat  thoroughfare  for  the 
commercial  world. 

The  river  Vuagua  is  remarkable  for  the  verdant  hues  of  its 
waters,  from  whence  it  receives  the  name  of  Ferdes  Agua : 
the  river  Veragua,  formed  from  the  Zacapa,  and  St.  Augus- 
tine, is  navigable  for  a  considerable  distance  into  the  interior, 
and  much  of  the  indigo  and  cochineal  exported,  find  their  way 
down  this  river.  There  are  numerous  small  streams  which 
discharge  into  both  Oceans. 

The  principal  seaports  are  Sansonata,  on  the  Pacific,  ninety 
miles  south-west  of  the  city  of  Guatamala  ;  in  16  degrees 
north  latitude  ;  Truxillo,  and  Puerto  Cavellos,  on  the  Bay  of 
Honduras.  The  northern  coast  of  Honduras  is  called  the 


PRESENT    STATE    0F    GUATAMALA.  205 

Musquito  shore,  and  is  inhabited  by  the  Musquito  Indians,  an 
indolent,  ignorant  race,  much  attached  to  the  British,  who 
have  settlements  on  the  Balize  river,  which  falls  into  the  Bay 
of  Honduras  ;  they  ascend  the  river  two  hundred  miles,  for 
the  purpose  of  cutting  logwood. 

Guatamala  lies  wholly  within  the  tropics  j^and  enjoys  a  cli- 
mate similar  to  that  portion  of  Mexico  lying  within  the  same 
zone — a  climate  peculiar  to  America,  which  has  none  of  the 
varieties  of  the  seasons,  and  which  embraces  in  the  same  de- 
gree of  latitude,  a  graduation  of  temperature  from  the  deso- 
lating heat  of  a  tropical  sun,  to  the  atmosphere  of  perpetual 
frost.  This  seems  almost  a  derangement  of  nature,  as  the 
frigid,  the  temperate,  and  the  torrid  zones,  are  brought  togeth- 
er under  the  equator.  The  temperature  does  not  depend  on 
the  degree  of  latitude,  but  on  the  elevation  from  the  sea.  The 
country,  like  Mexico,  from  the  peculiarity  of  its  climate,  pro- 
duces the  cerealia,-  or  grains  of  temperate  climates,  and  like- 
wise the  fruits,  in  the  same  latitude  with  the  productions  of 
the  tropics. 

In  the^tate  of  Guatamala,  the  vallies  are  well  watered,  and 
the  streams  overflowing  their  banks.  The  soil  is  extremely 
fertile.  On  the^  low  and  marshy  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Hondu- 
ras, log-wood  abounds  of  a  most  excellent  quality.  This  bay 
includes  a  compass  of  five  hundred  miles,  and  is  of  dangerous 
navigation.  There  are  several  islands  on  the  coast  of  this  bay, 
one  of  which,  called  Rattan,  is  about  thirty  miles  in  length, 
and  long  the  resort  of  pirates  ;  and  to  prevent  their  depreda- 
tions, the  British  established  a  settlement  on  it.  The  State  of 
Guatamala,  has  been  much  subject  to  earthquakes  ;  and  the 
city  of  that  name,  which  formerly  stood  in  a  beautiful  valley 
near  the  west  coast,  was  repeatedly  destroyed  by  volcanic  e- 
ruptions,  which  occasioned  it  to  be  removed  to  its  present  sit- 
uation, on  a  plain,  about  twenty-four  miles  from  its  former 
scite.  The  province  of  Nicaragua  has  also  been  visited  by 
earthquakes  ;  and  on  the  west  border  of  the  lake,  near  the 
town  of  Granada,  is  a  volcanic  mountain. 

The  agricultural  productions  of  this  republic  are  various  and 
abundant,  of  which  the  following  are  the  principal — indigo,  to- 
bacco of  a  superior  quality,  cocoa,  vanilla,  sarsaparilla,  woods 
of  various  kinds,  balsam,  sugar,  tar,  pitch,  rice,  corn,  wheat, 
cotton,  copper,  silver,  gold,  hides,  spices,  ginger,  honey,  and 
gums.  At  New-Segovia,  and  other  places,  there  are  valuable 
silver  and  gold  mines,  which  are  worked. 

The  chief  articles  of  exportation  are  cocoa,  cattle,  indigo, 
cotton,  and  dye-woods.  The  log-wood  trade,  and  that  in  the 
indigo  of  Guatamala,  have  been  the  most  important.  As  early 

VOL*  I.  18 


206  SKETCH    OP    THE    HISTORY    AND 

as  1 730,  the  British  established  a  settlement  on  Black  River, 
seventy-five  miles  to  the  east  of  Honduras,  and  another  on  a 
navigable  stream,  near  Cape  Gracios  a  Dios,  for  the  purpose 
of  the  log-wood  trade.  At  the  latter  place,  there  is  a  spacious 
and  secure  road  for  ships.  The  country  being  extremely  level, 
these  small  streams  are  navigable  a  considerable  distance,  and 
are  ascended  for  the  purpose  of  cutting  dye-woods.  The  log- 
wood cut  here  is  of  the  best  quality,  and  superior  to  that  on 
the  borders  of  the  Bay  of  Cam  peachy.  Since  the  indepen- 
dence of  Guatamala,  in  1823,  five  millions  of  cochineal  trees 
have  been  planted  in  its  territories. 

The  indigo  of  Guatamala  is  of  excellent  quality,  and  has 
long  been  an  important  article  of  commerce.  The  rich  pas- 
tures of  Guatamala  covered  with  perpetual  verdure,  support 
vast  herds  of  cattle  ;  and  hides  form  a  considerable  article  of 
commerce.  A  coasting  trade  is  carried  on  with  San  Bias  in 
Mexico,  Panama  in  Colombia,  and  Lima  in  Peru  ;  the  town 
of  Granada,  as  well  as  Guatamala,  is  a  place  of  considerable 
commercial  activity.  The  revolution  which  is  calculated  to 
give  a  stimulus  to  industry  of  every  kind,  cannot  fail,  should 
the  republic  continue  tranquil,  to  promote  the  commerce  of  a 
country  so  advantageously  situated  for  trade,  and  possessing 
such  great  and  diversified  agricultural  resources. 

Civil  divisions,  towns  and  population. — Guatamala,  formed 
the  jurisdiction  of  a  chief  called  a  captain-general,  and  was 
divided  into  fifteen  provinces,  but  it  now  comprises  five  states  ; 
Guatamala,  Salvador,  Honduras,  Nicaragua  and  Costa  Rica, 
Baron  Humboldt  in  1822,  estimated  its  population  at  600,000 
but  his  calculations  were  not  founded  on  any  correct  statisti- 
cal data ;  and  Simon  del  Valle,  late  president  of  the  expedi- 
tion, is  of  opinion  that  the  central  republic  cannot  now  contain 
a  population  of  less  than  2,000,000.  If  this  be  correct,  the 
central  republic  exceeds  in  population,  Peru,  Chile,  the  re- 
public of  Bolivar  on  the  United  Provinces  ;  but  there  is  a  less 
proportion  of  whites,  one  half  of  the  whole  population  being 
Indians. 

Principal  towns. — The  city  of  Guatamala  is  the  capital  of 
the  republic  ;  and  stands  in  a  beautiful  interior  plain,  in  lati- 
tude 14  degrees  north.  It  is  a  large  town,  containing  a  uni- 
versity, and  numerous  convents  and  churches,  with  a  popula- 
tion, estimated  by  some  at  forty  thousand,  by  others,  at  twenty- 
four  thousand. 

Leon,  the  capital  of  the  State  of  Nicaragua,  is  situated  near 
the  Pacific,  on  the  south-west  border  of  the  lake  of  the  same 
name,  distinctly  seen  from  the  hill  of  St.  Petre,  in  the  vicinity, 
and  from  which  the  roar  of  the  sea  may  be  frequently  heard. 


PRESENT    STATE    OP   GUATAMALA.  207 

although  the  distance  is  twelve  miles.  The  climate  is  warm, 
but  the  town  is  healthy  ;  the  public  offices  of  the  province  are 
located  here ;  its  public  buildings  consist  of  a  cathedral,  a  uni- 
versity, and  three  convents.  The  population  of  Leon,  and 
that  of  the  two  adjoining  parishes,  amounts  to  thirty-two  thou- 
sand. 

The  other  principal  towns  are  Granada,  Nicaragua,  Masaya, 
and  San  Salvador.  Conception  is  a  small  place,  near  a  ruin 
of  the  same  name.  Santa  Fe,  is  a  small  town,  and  a  bishop's 
see,  in  the  middle  of  the  ancient  province  of  Veragua.  San- 
tiago, a  small  place,  and  bishop's  see,  in  the  middle  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Costa  Rica,  or  Rich  Coast,  so  named  from  its  mines 
which  were  formerly  worked,  but  have  since  been  abandoned  in 
consequence  of  the  difficulty  and  expense  of  working  them. 
Valiadolid  is  an  inconsiderable  place,  and  a  bishop's  see,  situa- 
ted in  a  pleasant  valley  in  the  State  of  Honduras,  and  one  hun- 
dred miles  east  of  which  is  St.  Jago,  both  formerly  towns  of 
considerable  business,  but  now  greatly  declined.  About  ninety 
miles  east  of  the  town  of  Guatamala,  is  Sansanata,  or  Trin- 
idad, which  is  the  nearest  harbour  for  ships  from  Panama  or 
Peru,  trading  with  Guatamala.  Omoa,  at  the  extremity  of 
the  bay  of  the  same  name,  is  only  a  negro  village,  with  some 
merchants,  and  a  fortress,  but  is  a  favourable  place  for  busi- 
ness. Zacapa  is  a  large  interior  village,  on  the  road  from 
Omoa  to  Guatamala,  said  to  contain  six  thousand  inhabitants 
of  all  descriptions. 

Government  and  History. — The  government  of  the  United  Pro- 
vinces is  a  federal  republic,  called  the  Confederation  of  the  Cen- 
tre of  America,  similar  to  that  of  Mexico,  and  like  that,  formed 
on  the  model  of  the  government  of  the  United  btates.  The  con- 
stitution provides  for  a  general  or  national  government,  and  local 
or  state  governments,  for  the  direction  of  infernal  concerns. 
The  national  legislation  is  vested  in  a  general  congress,  consist- 
ing of  a  chamber  of  deputies,  elected  in  the  proportion  of  one 
to  every  thirty  thousand  of  the  population  ;  and  a  senate  com- 
posed of  two  members  from  each  State,  chosen  by  the  electors, 
and  not  by  the  provincial  assemblies.  The  chamber  of  deputies 
is  to  be  renewed  one  half  every  year,  and  the  same  person  is 
eligible  only  the  second  time,  in  succession  ;  but  is  again  eli- 
gible after  an  interval  of  one  term.  The  powers  of  the  nation- 
al legislature  are  much  the  same  as  those  of  our  congress,  and 
the  only  essential  difference  in  the  two  bodies,  is,  that  in  Gua- 
tamala the  senators  are  chosen  by  the  people,  and  not  by  the 
states ;  and  consequently  are  not  the  representatives  of  the 
states  in  their  corporate  character.  The  executive  power  is 
vested  in  a  president  and  vice-president,  elected  by  the  people, 


208  SKETCH    OF    THE    HISTORY    AND 

for  the  term  of  four  years,  and  are  eligible  a  second  time  in 
succession.  The  vice-president  presides  in  the  senate.  In 
the  organization  of  the  judiciary,  the  constitution  departs 
widely  from  what  are  considered  established  principles.  In- 
stead of  being  independent,  and  raised  above  the  popular  influ- 
ence, the  judges  of  the  supreme  court  are  elected  by  the  people, 
one  third  to  be  renewed  every  two  years  ;  there  is  however  no 
ineligibility  of  the  members. 

The  provincial,  or  state  governments,  consist  of  a  popular 
assembly  and  senate,  and  two  executive  chiefs,  one  governor, 
and  the  other  president  of  the  senate,  elected  by  the  people, 
for  the  term  of  four  years,  and  eligible  once  only  without  an  in- 
terval. On  the  subject  of  religion,  the  constitution  is  the  same 
as  those  of  the  other  new  governments  formed  in  Spanish 
America  ;  the  Roman  Catholic  is  established  as  the  national 
faith,  which  is  defended  by  law,  and  all  others  prohibited. 

The  progress  of  the  revolution,  in  the  neighbouring  colonies, 
was  not  without  its  influence  on  Guatamala  ;  it  excited  a  spirit 
of  inquiry  among  the  people,  awakened  a  sense  of  their  op- 
pressions, and  prepared  their  minds  to  throw  off  the  Spanish 
yoke  ;  and  the  revolution  of  Iguala,  which,  in  1821,  overthrew 
the  royal  authority  in  Mexico,  afforded  a  favourable  opportu- 
nity to  the  central  provinces  to  put  an  end  to  the  odious  do- 
minion of  Spain.  Indeed,  such  was  the  connexion  between 
•  the  two  countries,  that  the  subversion  of  the  royal  authority 
in  Mexico,  opened  the  way  to  the  emancipation  of  Guatamala. 
Accordingly,  on  the  15th  of  September,  1821,  the  general 
wish  of  the  people  for  independence  was  openly  proclaimed 
in  the  capital,  and  that  day  was  afterwards  decreed,  by  the 
constituent  Assembly,  to  be  observed  as  an  anniversary  festi- 
val, on  which  donations  were  to  be  made  to  the  poorest 
young  persons  who  had  married  during  the  past  year.  Like  a 
latent  flame  long  smothered,  the  spirit  of  independence  hav- 
ing once  burst  forth,  spread  with  electric  effect ;  the  people 
were  every  where  aroused  to  secure  their  freedom,  and  the 
captain-general,  having  no  army  to  support  the  Spanish  au- 
thority, it  fell  without  a  struggle.  As  the  revolution  which 
resulted  in  the  liberation  of  Mexico,  had  contributed  to  the 
emancipation  of  the  central  provinces,  Iturbide  and  his  asso- 
ciates were  disposed  to  annex  Guatamala  to  Mexico,  and  to 
establish  one  government  over  the  two  countries  ,  and  by  in- 
triguing with  the  captain-general,  and  some  of  the  leaders  in 
the  revolution  in  the  central  provinces,  and  ordering  Filisola 
with  a  body  of  troops  to  march  into  the  country,  the  opposi- 
tion to  the  union  was  overawed  or  silenced,  and  Guatamala 
was  united  to  the  Mexican  empire.  This  union,  however, 


PRESENT  STATE  OF  GUATAMALA.       209 

which  it  was  pretended  was  the  voluntary  act  of  the  people, 
was  effected  by  intrigue,  deceit,  and  force  ;  and  immediately 
symptoms  of  uneasiness  and  disaffection  appeared  among  the 
inhabitants.  The  province  of  San  Salvador  taking  the  lead, 
revolted  against  the  government  of  Mexico,  declared  the  un- 
ion to  be  forced  and  illegal,  and  prepared  to  defend  its  inde- 
pendence by  arms.  Troops  were  sent  against  them,  and  they 
were  compelled  to  submit ;  and  from  this  time  to  the  over- 
throw of  the  imperial  government  in  1823,  the  central  pro- 
vinces followed  the  fortunes  of  Mexico  ;  it  sent  deputies  to 
the  Mexican  congress,  and  when  the  regency  and  the  congress 
were  dissolved  by  Iturbide,  in  1822,  the  central  provinces 
also  submitted  to  the  usurper.  Not  however  quietly,  for  the 
Mexican  forces  having  been  previously  withdrawn,  the  spirit 
of  revolt  again  broke  out  in  the  province  of  San  Salvador,  and 
preparations  were  making  to  resist,  by  force,  the  union  with 
Mexico  ;  but  before  they  had  occasion  to  do  it,  the  imperial 
authority  was  overthrown,  and  the  government  which  suc~ 
ceeded  it,  being  entirely  occupied  with  its  own  affairs,  the 
central  provinces  were  for  a  time  left  to  themselves.  Every 
thing  now  favoured  the  recovery  of  their  independence — the 
commandant,  Filisola,  an  Italian  by  birth,  now  favoured  the 
independence  of  the  country,  from  the  hopes  of  becoming  the 
chief  of  the  new  rejnfblic.  Availing  themselves  of  these  fa- 
vourable circumstances,  the  partizans  of  liberty  convoked  a 
congress,  which,  on  the  24th  of  June,  1823,  declared  the  act 
of  union  with  Mexico  null  and  void,  and  erected  Guatamala 
into  an  independent  republic,  by  the  name  of  The  United  Pro- 
vinces of  the  Centre  of  America.  Mexico  being  now  free,  and 
its  government  influenced  by  the  maxims  of  justice,  and  a 
regard  to  the  interest  and  liberty  of  all  Spanish  America,  in- 
stead of  opposing  the  will  of  Guatamala,  ordered  the  com- 
mandant, Filisola,  to  return  with  his  troops  from  that  quarter.* 
The  congress  created  a  junta,  or  executive  power,  of  which 
Senor  del  Valle  was  president,  and  he  immediately  took  steps 
to  assemble  a  constituent  assembly,  to  form  a  constitution 
for  the  new  republic  ;  but  whilst  this  assembly  was  engaged 
in  deliberations  to  secure  the  independence  and  liberties  of  the 
republic,  both  were  threatened  with  destruction  from  a  domes- 
tic enemy.  A  most  bold  and  alarming  conspiracy  had  been  form- 
ed against  the  government  by  several  officers  of  the  army, 
who  had  drawn  several  corps  into  their  viows.  On  the  1 4th 
of  September,  1823,  the  plot  broke  out,  and  for  two  days  the 
fate  of  the  republic  was  suspended  on  the  result  of  a  furious 

*  Report  of  Mexican  secretary  of  state. 
18* 


210  SKETCH    OP   THE    HISTORY    AND 

struggle  between  the  rebel  troops,  and  the  inhabitants  of  th& 
capital,  aided  by  some  few  troops,  which  remained  faithful. 
The  hall  of  the  constituent  assembly  was  converted  into  a  fort 
for  the  protection  of  the  patriots.  The  patriotism  and  cour- 
age of  the  inhabitants  finally  prevailed,  and  the  leaders  of  the 
conspiracy  were  compelled  to  flee  to  save  the  lives  they  had 
so  justly  forfeited.  A  sergeant  only  was  executed  ;  the  names 
of  the  inhabitants  who  fell  fighting  for  their  country,  were 
engraved  on  marble  in  the  hall  of  congress.  The  troops  en- 
gaged in  the  conspiracy  were  disbanded,  and  tranquillity  again 
restored.  The  constituent  assembly  resumed  their  delibera- 
tions, and  after  several  months'  labour,  completed  the  consti- 
tution for  the  republic,  already  noticed.  On  the  20th  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1825,  the  constituent  assembly  was  dissolved,  and  was 
succeeded  by  the  federal  congress,  elected  in  pursuance  of 
the  constitution,  the  members  of  which,  on  the  10th  of  April 
following,  swore  to  preserve  inviolate  the  constitutional  char- 
ter. On  this  occasion,  Senor  del  Valle,  the  president  of  the 
executive,  resigned  his  authority,  and  pronounced  a  patri- 
otic and  eloquent  speech :  "  the  people  believe,"  says  this 
patriot,  "  that,  from  the  moment  they  have  made  choice  of  a 
citizen  to  be  a  representative,  the  private  character  of  the  man 
should  cease,  and  nothing  exist  but  his  public  capacity  ;  that 
self  should  die,  and  nothing  live  in  him  mit  his  country  ;  that 
all  personal  likes  and  dislikes  should  be  annihilated,  and  no- 
thing survive  but  the  sublime  and  delightful  sentiments  of  pat- 
riotism." Most  noble  sentiments !  well  worthy  the  attention 
of  some  of  our  own  politicians,  too  many  of  whom,  instead 
of  losing  themselves  in  the  republic,  lose  the  republic  in  them- 
selves. With  such  specimens  of  sublime  patriotism  before  us, 
who  will  say  that  this  people  are  not  deserving  of  liberty  1 

The  province  of  Chiapa  determined  to  adhere  to  the  Mexi- 
can union,  and  now  forms  one  of  the  states  of  that  republic  ; 
but  all  the  other  provinces,  although  for  some  time  disturbed, 
finally  declared  in  favour  of  the  federal  government,  which 
has  gradually  acquired  stability  and  energy.  Guatamala  is 
tranqiul,  Mexico  has  acknowledged  its  independence,  and,  to- 
gether with  the  other  new  republics  of  the  south,  maintains 
friendly  relations  with  it ;  some  of  the  states  have  formed  con- 
stitutions conformably  to  that  of  the  union  ;  the  sacrifices  of 
the  revolution  have  fallen  more  lightly  here  than  on  any  of  the 
southern  states  ;  its  geographical  position  is  in  the  centre  of 
the  world,  looking  east  towards  Asia,  and  west  towards  Eu- 
rope and  Africa,  with  a  soil  and  climate  affording,  in  abun- 
dance ,  all  the  productions  of  both  temperate  and  tropical  re- 


PRESENT    STATE    OF    GUATAMALA.  211 

gions  ;  every  thing  seems  to  argue  favourably  to  its  prosper- 
ity and  rapid  advancement  in  population  and  national  im- 


portance 

*  Most  of  the  facts,  in  this  sketch,  are  taken  from  an  article  on 
Guatamala,  in  the  New  Monthly  Magazine,  said  to  have  been  writ- 
ten on  the  authority  of  Senor  del  Valle,  late  president  of  the  exe~ 
eutive  junta,  and  one  of  the  most  learned  citizens  of  the  republic  : 
Senor  Herrera,  ex-deputy  of  the  constituent  assembly,  and  the  jour- 
nal of  Dr.  Lavagnino,  who  travelled  in  the  central  republic  in  the 
summer  of  1825. 


END  OF  VOLUME  FIRST. 


VIEW 


SOUTH   AMERICA 


MEXICO, 


COMPRISING 


THEIR  HISTORY,    THE  POLITICAL  CONDITION,  GEOGRAPHY,  AGRICUL- 
TURE,   COMMERCE,    &C.    OF  THE  REPUBLICS  OF  MEXICO,  GUATA- 
31ALA.  COLOMBIA,    PERU,  THE  UNITED  PROVINCES  OF  SOUTH 
AMERICA  AND  CHILE,  WITH  A  COMPLETE  HISTORY  OF 
THE  REVOLUTION,  IN  EACH  OF  THESE 

1XDEPENDENT  STATES. 


BY  A  CITIZEN  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


TWO  VOLUMES  /JV  OJV.E. 
VOL.  II. 

NEW- YORK : 

PUBLISHEp  BY  H.  HUNTINGTON,    JR. 

2826. 


District  of  Connecticut,  ss. 

BE  IT  REMEMBERED,  That  on  the  twenty" 
T  ^  C     second  day   of  October,  in  the  fiftieth  year  of  the  in" 
dependence  of  the  United   States  of   America,    H* 
HUNTINGTON,  JR.  of  the  said  district,  has  deposited  in 
this  office  the  title  of  a  Book,  the  right  whereof  he  claims  as  propri- 
etor, in  the  words  following1,  to  wit :  "  A  View  of  South  America  and 
Mexico,  comprising  their  history,  the  political  condition,  geography, 
agriculture,  commerce,  &c.  of  the  republics  of  Mexico,  Guatamalas 
Colombia,  Peru,  the  United  Provinces  of  South-America  and  Chile, 
with  a  complete  history  of  the  Revolution  in  each  of  these  indepen- 
dent States. — By  a  citizen  of  the  United  States. — Two  volumes  in 
one,     Vol.11." 

In  conformity  to  the  act  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  en- 
titled, "  An  act  for  the  encouragement  of  learning,  by  securing  the 
copies  of  Maps,  Charts  and  Books,  to  the  authors  and  proprietors  of 
such  copies,  during  the  times  therein  mentioned." 

CHARLES  A.  INGERSOLL, 
Clerk  of  the  District  of  Connecticut: 

A  true  copy  of  Record,  examined  and  sealed  by  me, 

CHARLES  A    INGERSOLL, 

Glerk  of  the  District  of  Connecticut' 


COLOMBIA. 


CHAPTER  1. 


General  description — proposed  route  of  the  great  canal — climate., 
soil,  and  productions — drugs  and  medicinal  productions — 
civil  divisions — population  and  principal  towns — mines — 
roads,  canals,  fyc. — government — commerce — manufacture^, 
fyCt — army, — navy,  4*c. — character  of  the  people — education 
— religion. 

THE  Republic  of  Colombia  comprises  an  extent  of  coun- 
try, embracing  22  deg.  or  1320  miles  of  longitude,  stretching 
from  the  mouth  of  Orinoco,  to  the  western  extremity  of  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama  ;  and  of  18  degrees,  or  1080  miles  of  lat- 
itude, extending  11  1-2  degrees  to  the  north,  and  6  1-2  to 
the  south  of  the  equator,  calculating  from  Cape  la  Vela  to  the 
sourthern  extremity  of  the  Republic.  This  vast  territory  is 
bounded,  north  and  east  by  the  Atlantic  ocean,  and  by  the  ter- 
ritories of  Guiana  ;  west,  by  the  republic  of  Guatamala,  ,or 
central  America,  and  the  Pacific  ocean  ;  and  south  by  the  re- 
public of  Peru,  and  the  river  Amazon.  The  territory  com- 
prised within  the  above  mentioned  limits,  constitutes  one  of 
the  most  magnificent  regions  on  the  globe.  Bordering  on 
two  oceans,  its  waters  are  unrivalled  ;  it  embraces  a  large 
portion  of  the  immense  valley  of  the  Amazon,  with  the  whole 
of  the  great  vallies  of  the  Orinoco  and  Magdaiena,  and  is 
traversed  by  some  of  the  loftiest  mountains  in  the  world.  It 
possesses  every  diversity  of  soil  and  climate  ;  unrivalled  com- 
mercial advantages,  and  mineral  treasures,  which  afford  the 
most  powerful  stimulus,  and  promise  the  greatest  reward  to  the 
industry  and  enterprise  of  civilized  man. 

The  Cordillera  of  the  Andes,  which  traverses  the  whole  con- 
tinent of  South  America,  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Repub- 
lic, divides  into  two  parallel  ranges,  forming  the  lofty  valley  of 


4  HISTORY    AND    PRESENT 

Quito,  the  plain  of  which  is  elevated  9000  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  Ocean.  To  the  right  of  this  valley,  rise  the  sum- 
mits of  the  Copacureu,  16,380  feet  high  ;  Tunguragua,  16, 
720  feet  high  ;  Cotopaxj,  17,950;  and  Guyambu,  18,180. 
To  the  left  is  Chimborazo,  towering  above  the  clouds,  whose 
height  is  20,100  feet ;  Tlenisa,  16,302  ;  and  Pichinca,  15,380, 
all  covered  with  perpetual  snows,  and  subject  to  volcanic  erup- 
tions. Near  Tulcan,  the  Cordillera,  after  having  been  irreg- 
ularly united  by  lofty  groups  of  mountains,  a^ain  divides  itself 
into  two  chains,  which  forms  the  elevated  valley  of  Pastos, 
beyond  which  it  diverges  into  three  ridges,  the  most  western 
following  the  coast  of  the  Pacific  ocean,  terminates  in  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama  ;  the  central  divides  the  valley  of  Cauca 
from  that  of  the  Magdalena,  and  declines  near  Mompox,  on 
the  river  Magdalena.  In  the  eastern  range,  the  most  con- 
siderable and  loftiest  of  the  three,  the  numberless  streams 
which  unite  to  swell  the  majestic  Orinoco  have  their  rise  ;  it 
forms  the  table  land,  on  which  stands  the  city  of  Santa  Fe  de 
Bogota,  at  an  elevation  of  8,100  feet.  This  range  again  di- 
vides into  two  ridges,  one  of  which  extends  to  the  north, 
separating  the  waters  of  the  Magdalena  from  those  that  fall 
into  lake  Maracaibo,  and  terminates  near  the  ocean  in  the 
province  of  Santa  Martha  ;  the  other,  with  its  numerous 
branches  and  ramifications,  takes  a  north-easterly  direction 
along  the  maritime  border  of  the  republic,  and  finally  is  lost  at 
the  gulf  of  Paria,  constituting  the  northern  boundary  of  the 
great  valley  of  the  Orinoco.  The  southern  boundary  of  this 
valley,  is  terminated  by  the  Paramo  mountains,  which  extend 
from  near  the  Andes  easterly,  and  are  lost  in  Guiana.  To 
the  south  of  this  ridge,  lies  the  most  extensive  valley  on  the 
globe,  watered  by  the  majestic  Amazon,  and  its  innumerable 
branches. 

The  waters  of  Colombia  are  no  where  surpassed,  affording 
superior  advantages  for  commerce,  both  internal  and  foreign. 
In  addition  to  its  extensive  maritime  border  on  the  Atlantic, 
which  reaches  from  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  to  Guiana,  and 
abounds  with  numerous  harbours,  some  of  which  are  among 
the  best  in  the  world,  it  has  an  extensive  sea  coast  on  the 
Pacific,  which  also  affords  a  number  of  good  harbours.  The 
most  valuable  harbours  on  the  Atlantic  coast  are  Porto  Bello, 
Chagres,  Carthagena,  Savannilla,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Magda- 
lena ;  Santa  Martha,  Rio  de  Hacha,  the  gulf  or  lake  of  Mara- 
caibo, Coro,  Tacargua,  Puerto  Cabello,  La  Guayra,  Barcelo- 
na, Cumana,  and  the  gulfs  of  Paria  and  Cariaco.  On  the 
Pacific,  are  the  gulf  of  Guayaquil,  and  the  bays  Buenaventura, 
or  Choco,  and  Panama.  The  interior  waters  are  extensive 


STATE    OF    COLOMBIA. 

and  affords  valuable  navigable  advantages.  The  superb  river 
Amazon,  which  waters  the  most  fertile  regions  of  the  globe, 
clothed  in  perpetual  verdure,  and  blooming  with  fruits  and 
flowers,  washes  the  southern  border  of  the  republic.  This 
majestic  stream,  flowing  over  golden  sands,  through  groves  of 
cinnamon  and  spices  and  primitive  forests,  of  the  most  magnifi- 
cent character,  taking  its  rise  among  the  auriferous  mountains 
of  Peru,  and  discharging  its  immense  vol&ne  of  waters  into 
the  Atlantic,  under  the  line,  is  said  to  be  navigable  to  the  foot 
of  the  Cordillera  of  the  eastern  Andes.  A  free  navigation,  of 
this  noble  river,  would  afford  incalculable  advantages  to  the 
commercial  world,  and  is  a  subject  worthy  of  the  attention 
of  the  enlightened  government  of  Colombia.  The  next  river, 
in  magnitude  and  importance,  is  the  Orinoco,  which  rises  in 
the  heart  of  the  republic,  and  after  a  course  of  nearly  1 500 
miles,  in  a  north  easterly  direction,  discharges  the  mighty  wa- 
ters of  its  numerous  branches  into  the  Atlantic,  in  latitude 
9  deg.  north.  The  Meta  and  Apure,  are  the  two  principal 
branches  of  the  the  Orinoco.  These  magnificent  rivers  are  sub- 
ject to  periodical  overflowings,  which  convert  the  whole  country 
during  four  months  of  the  year  into  an  immense  lake  or 
inland  sea  ;  and  when  the  floods  retire,  the  whole  plain  is 
covered  with  luxuriant  pasture,  on  which  innumerable  herds 
of  cattle  are  raised  :  nor  are  these  plains  less  rich  in  agricul- 
tural advantages.  The  banks  of  the  rivers  are  covered  with 
primeval  forests,  of  the  most  precious  kinds  of  woods,  for  dye- 
ing, furniture,  and  building  ;  and  exhibit,  when  cleared,  a  soil 
capable  of  yielding  abundantly,  every  species  of  tropical 
produce. 

The  climate,  though  hot,  is  neither  so  unhealthy  nor  debili- 
tating, as  that  of  the  sea-coast,  the  air  being  refreshed  and 
purified  by  the  strong  breezes  blowing  constantly  over  this 
verdant  plain,  which  extends  not  less  than  300  miles  in  every 
direction,  between  the  Andes  and  the  Orinoco.  The  great 
valley  of  the  Orinoco  is  wholly  within  the  territory  of  the  re- 
public, and  will,  undoubtedly,  at  some  future  period,  sustain  a 
great  population,  when  its  resources  become  fully  developed. 
The  Orinoco  is  navigable  for  sea  vessels,  to  the  city  of  An-, 
gostura,  and  for  smaller  vessels,  further  into  the  country.  The 
use  of  steam  boats  will  probably  give  great  extension  to  the 
navigation  of  this  river  and  its  branches,  as  it  is  stated  that  the 
Meta  is  capable  of  being  navigated  to  within  150  miles  of  the 
city  of  Bogota.  The  next  most  considerable  river  is  the  Mag 
dalena,  which  descends  to  the  north  more  than  700  miles 
through  the  vallies  of  the  Andes,  and  is  navigable  to  the  port 
of  Honda,  550  miles  from  its  entrance  into  the  Atlantic.  TJu> 

VOL.  II,  19 


6  HISTORY  AND  PRESENT 

river  communicates  directly  with  some  of  the  richest  sections 
of  the  republic,  and  is  represented  to  be  very  favourable  to 
steam  navigation ;  the  Cauca  runs  through  a  valley  of  the 
same  name,  and  unites  wkh  the  Magdalena. 

The  next  most  considerable  river  to  the  west,  is  the  Atrato, 
which  falls  into  the  gulf  of  Darien.  This  stream,  together 
with  the  St.  Juan  of  the  Pacific,  is  said  to  afford  the  best  route 
for  a  canal,  to  unite  the  two  oceans.  "  A  communication  can 
be  effected  by  making  a  canal  from  the  head  waters  of  the 
Atrato,  a  fine  navigable  river  falling  into  the  gulf  of  Darien,  in 
lat.  8,  and  the  River  St.  Juan  de  Chirambira  which  falls  into  a 
bay  of  the  same  name,  in  the  Pacific  ocean,  in  lat.  4.  The 
point  of  junction  would  be  at  about  400  miles  from  the  Atlan- 
tic, and  about  260  from  the  Pacific.  About  15  miles  of  the 
river  Atrato,  or  rather  the  Quito,  which  flows  into  the  Atrato, 
would  require  a  few  locks,  but  not  many,  as  the  current  of  the 
river  is  only,  in  the  dry  season,  about  one  mile  per  hour. 
Twenty  miles  too  of  the  St.  Juan  would  require  locking,  leav- 
ing an  intervening  space  of  level  land  of  only  four  miles  and  a 
hulf  to  cut  through.  The  rivers  Atrato,  Quito,  and  St.  Juan 
de  Chirambira  are  free  from  every  sort  of  obstruction  until  we 
reach  the  points  where  the  locking  becomes  necessary ;  and 
there  is  depth  enough  on  the  Atlantic  side  for  vessels  drawing 
seven,  and  on  the  Pacific  twenty  feet  of  water.  The  rivers 
flow  through  a  country  abounding  with  the  most  magnificent 
forests  of  mahogany,  dye-woods,  and  other  valuable  timber, 
and  the  only  disadvantageous  circumstance  is,  that  the  mouth 
of  the  Atrato  is  obstructed  with  a  bar,  upon  which  there  is  on- 
ly seven  feet  of  water.  We  should,  however,  not  despair  of 
human  ingenuity,  devising  some  means  to  remedy  this  impedi- 
ment. 

Nature  seems  to  have  designed  this  for  the  passage.  The 
frowning  Andes  are  here  for  a  moment  lost,  and  in  obedience 
to  the  will  of  Providence  and  the  wants  of  man,  seem  here  to 
have  defiled,  that  commerce  may  march  from  the  old  world  to 
the  new.  It  is  a  fact  no  less  curious  than  true,  that  a  canal 
did  formerly  exist  in  this  spot. — About  the  year  1 745,  a  priest 
of  Citira,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Indians,  opened  this  same 
communication  known  by  the  name  of  the  Raspadura  canal, 
through  which  loaded  canoes  passed,  but  the  jealous  policy  of 
the  Spanish  government  caused  it  to  be  closed,  and  prohibit* 
ed,  under  severe  penalties,  any  attempt  to  re-open  it.  The 
remains  of  this  canal  are  visible  to  the  present  hour,  and  the 
fact  is  mentioned  by  Humboldt,  Bonnycastle,  and  Robinson. 
We  derive  this  information  from  a  gentleman  now  in  this  city, 
[Aew  York  J  who  has  resided  twelve  years  in  Colombia,  and 


STATE  OF  COLOMBIA.  7 

who  has  travelled  over  every  part  of  the  route  from  sea  to  sea. 
The  utmost  confidence  may  of  course  be  reposed  in  his  state- 
ments ;  he  has,  moreover,  constructed  a  map  in  which  the  en- 
tire tract  of  the  country  is  accurately  laid  down. 

In  1821,  the  same  gentleman  applied  to  the  Government  of 
Colombia  for  permission  to  open  this  communication  at  his 
own  expense,  with  exclusive  privileges  for  one  hundred  years. 
The  Congress  passed  a  vote  in  favour  of  the  application,  but 
it  was  objected  to  by  Bolivar,  on  the  ground  that  it  might  af- 
ford facilities  to  the  enemy.  The  applicant  was,  however, 
desired  to  rCiiew  his  proposals  at  the  peace,  for  a  term  some- 
what less  than  100  years,  which  he  is  now  about  to  do,  and 
nothing,  we  believe,  will  defeat  his  object,  but  the  fact  of  the 
government  undertaking  the  business  itself,  which  is  not  im- 
probable." 

During  the  year  1825,  this  route  was  examined  by  an  agent 
employed  for  the  purpose,  by  a  company  of  merchants  in  the 
city  of  New- York  ;  whose  report  of  its  practicability,  it  is  un- 
derstood, was  favourable. 

The  river  ChUgres  falls  into  the  Atlantic,  at  a  town  of  the 
same  name,  54  miles  west  of  Porto  Bello,  and  is  navigable  as 
far  as  Cruzes,  within  five  leagues  of  Panama.  The  Palmar 
and  Zulia,  are  the  chief  tributaries  of  Lake  Maracaibo ;  the 
other  considerable  and  navigable  rivers,  are  the  Tocuyo,  the 
Aroa,  the  Yaracay,  Tuy,  and  Unare,  all  of  which  run  to  the 
north,  and  discharge  their  waters^  into  the  Atlantic  ocean  •. 
and  most  of  which*  are  accommodated  with  harbours,  and 
some  of  them  are  navigable  a  considerable  distance.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  St.  Juan,  the  Pacific  border  has  the  Guayaquil, 
which  empties  into  the  Gulf  of  that  name,  the  Verd,  the  Mira, 
and  many  smaller  rivers. 

Climate,  soil,  and  productions. — The  climate  of  Colombia, 
although  the  whole  country  lies  geographically,  within  the  tor- 
rid zone,  like  Mexico  it  possesses  all  the  characteristics  which 
diversify  the  three  zones  into  which  the  earth  is  divided. 
With  respect  to  climate,  soil,  and  productions,  the  tract  of 
country  adjacent  to  its  maritime  border,  both  on  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific,  is  invariably  hot,  and  generally  unhealthy,  to 
strangers  from  northern  climates.  The  soil  here  is  luxuriant 
wherever  it  is  sufficiently  watered  by  rivers  or  periodical  rains, 
and  produces  abundantly  all  the  natural  and  agricultural  pro- 
ductions common  to  tropical  regions ;  sugar,  cotton,  coffee, 
cocoa,  indigo,  tobacco,  and  the  various  kinds  of  dye  woods 
abundantly  reward  the  hand  of  industry,  and  constitute  the 
staple  productions  of  this  region.*  The  extensive  vallies  ly- 

*  Some  districts  on  the  coast,  from  their  peculiar  position  relative 


HISTORY    AND    PRESENT 

ing  on  the  borders  of  the  great  rivers,  have  a  climate  some- 
what more  temperate,  affording  the  greatest  variety  of  produc- 
tions, and  support  immense  herds  of  cattle  on  their  verdant 
savannas.  Hence  hides  have  become  one  of  the  great  sta- 
ples of  the  country,  and  are  exported  in  great  quantities.  In 
the  elevated  vallies,  at  the  height  of  4000  feet  above  the  lev- 
el of  the  sea,  the  climate  becomes  temperate,  and  vegetation 
continues  uninterrupted  through  the  year. 

To  the  agricultural  and  natural  productions  already  jnen- 
tioned,  many  precious  drugs  and  medicines,  might  be  added  ; 
a  great  variety  of  dying  plants,  bees  wax,  hone  ,  cochineal, 
which  abounds  about  Quito ;  the  coarser  metals,  copper  and 
iron,  are  found  abundantly  in  many  places  ;  the  precious  met- 
als also  enrich  many  districts,  particularly  Choco  and  An- 
tioquia,  where  considerable  quantities  of  gold,  silver,  and  pla 
tina,  have  been  obtained.  The  article  platina  is  said  to  exist 
in  great  abundance  in  Choco,  and  emeralds  abound  in  many 
parts  of  the  country.  Salt  is  also  among  the  natural  produc- 
tions of  this  country  ;  and  immense  herds  of  cattle,  horses, 
sheep,  and  deer,  are  found  running  wild  in  the  woods  and  sa- 
vannas. There  is  also,  an  abundant  supply  of  wild  fowl,  and 
the  coast  and  rivers  are  well  stored  with  turtle  and  fish  com- 
mon to  tropical  regions. 

Civil  divisions,  population,  and  principal  to&ns. — The  terri- 
tory now  comprised  within  the  republic  of  Colombia,  previous 
tG  thG  revolution,  formed  the  vice  royalty  of  New  Granada, 
and  captain-ifeneralcy  of  Venezuela.  The  western  section  o£ 
New  Granada  comprehended  the  following  provinces,  which 
contained,  previous  to  the  revolution,  a  population  of  2,380,000 
souls,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  annexed  table. 


Rio  Hacha,  ...  20,000 

Santa  Martha,  .  .  70,000 

Carthagena,  .  .  210,000 

Panama,       .  .  .  50,000 

Antioquia,    .  .  .  110,000 

Socoro,         .  .  .  130,000 

Pamplona,     .  .  .  80,000 

Tunja,           .  .  •  200,000 

Choco,          .  .  .  40,000 

Veragua,      .  .  -  40,000 


Cundinamarca,      .  130,000 

Mariquita,       .       .  100,000 

Popayan,         .       .  320,000 

Casanare,        .      .  20,000 

Quito,         .     .      .  500,000 

Cuenca,      .     .      .  200,000 

Guayaquil,      .      .  50,000 

Loxa  and  Jean,    .  80,000 
Quixos  and  Maynas,  40,000 

Nevay,      ....  70,000 


The  population  of  the  eastern  section  of  the  republic  or 
the  captain-generalcy  of  Venezuela,  before  the  revolution, 
was  as  follows  : 

to  the  mountains  are  exposed  to  almost  incredible  droughts.  It  is 
said  the  territory  of  Coro  once  received  no  rain  for  four  years,  a,nd 
hat  other  districts  have  suffered  in  a  less  degree. 


STATE    OP    COLOMBIA.  9 


Venezuela,  .  .  ,  460,000 
Cumana,  ,  .  .  100,000 
Maracaibo,  .  .  .  120,000 


Barinas,  ....  90,000 
Guiana,  ....  40,000 
Tsl.  of  Margarita,  .  15,000 


Total,  825,000. 

The  provinces  of  New  Grnaada  suffered  much  less  by  the 
revolution,  have  been  longer  tranquil  than  those  of  Venezuela, 
and  have  probably  maintained  their  original  population  with 
perhaps  some  increase  within  the  last  six  years.  But  Vene- 
vuela,  having  been  the  seat  of  war  for  nearly  twelve  years, 
experiencing  all  its  horrors  and  devastations  in  constant  suc- 
cession, has  suffered  an  unexampled  diminution  of  its  inhab- 
itants ;  nearly  one  half  are  supposed  to  have  been  destroyed, 
and  whole  districts  depopulated.  Years  of  peace  and  tran- 
quillity will  be  required  to  supply  the  waste  of  life  which  has 
been  occasioned  by  a  revolution  unexampled  for  violence  and 
blood  shed,  and  by  the  ravages  of  the  desolating  Spanish  ar- 
mies in  a  war  of  extermination.  Within  the  last  two  or  three 
years,  the  tide  of  emigration  has  set  towards  this  country,  both 
from  Europe  and  the  United  States  ;  and  should  the  war  not 
be  revived  with  Spain,  which  is  little  to  be  apprehended,  it 
will  probably  rapidly  increase,  and  thousands  of  the  enter- 
prising and  industrious  population  of  Europe  and  North  Amer- 
ica will  be  transplanted  to  the  fertile  regions  of  Colombia. 
In  the  year  1822,  the  republic  was  divided  into  seven  de- 
partments, and  a  census  taken,  which  gave  a  population  of 
2,644,600.  In  June,  1824,  it  was  divided,  by  a  law  of  con- 
gress, into  twelve  departments,  embracing  thirty-seven  pro- 
vinces ;  these  provinces  were  subdivided  into  two  hundred 
and  thirty  cantons,  and  the  cantons  divided  into  parishes, 
which  are  the  smallest  civil  corporations.  The  names  of  the 
twelve  departments,  composing  the  republic,  are — 


1.  Orinoco, 

2.  Venezuela, 

3.  Zulia, 

4.  Magdalena, 

5.  Istmo, 
0,  Cauca, 


7.  Cundinamarca, 

8.  Boyaca, 

9.  Apure, 

10.  Escuador, 

11.  Asuay, 

12.  Guayaquil, 


It  is  supposed  there  is  no  great  accuracy  in  the  estimate  qf 
the' population  made  in  1822  ;  the  year  preceding,  it  was  sta- 
fed  by  Manuel  Torres,  charge  des  affairs  of  Colombia  to  the 
'United  States,  and  one  of  the  most  enlightened  citizens  of  his 
•Country,  that  Colombia  had  a  population  of  3,600,000.  This 

19* 


10  HISTORY    AMD    PRESENT 

probably  considerably  exceeded  the  amount  at  that  time,  but 
there  must  have  been  considerable  increase  since  1822. 

The  population  of  Colombia,  like  the  other  countries  in 
America  colonized  by  Spain,  consists  of  European  Spaniards, 
Creoles,  or  descendants  of  Spaniards,  Negroes,  Indians,  and 
the  different  casts.  With  respect  to  the  European  Spaniards, 
their  numbers,  always  small,  have  been  greatly  diminished  by 
the  revolution,  and  few  are  now  remaining  in  the  country. — - 
Most  of  this  class  being  hostile  to  the  independence  of  Amer- 
ica, took  a  part  in  the  revolution,  and  either  fell  victims  to  its 
ravages,  or  returned  to  Spain.  A  portion  of  the  Indians  arc 
civilized,  and  citizens  of  the  republic  ;  whilst  others,  like  the 
Indians  in  the  United  States,  are  independent  tribes,  and  not 
included  in  the  estimate  of  the  population  of  the  country.  The 
negroes  and  mixed  races  are  mostly  free,  and  have  contributed 
greatly  to  fill  the  ranks  of  the  republican  army  ;  and  some  of 
this  class  have  risen  to  distinction  in  the  army,  and  are  consid- 
ered among  the  firmest  supporters  of  the  independence  of  the 
republic. 

The  principal  cities  of  the  republic  are  Bogota,  Quito,  and 
Caraccas.  Bogota,  which  has  been  the  seat  of  the  national 
government,  since  the  adoption  of  the  constitution,  is  situated 
in  lat.  4  deg.  35  min.  N.  at  an  elevation  of  8,100  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  on  a  beautiful  and  spacious  plain  on  the  banks 
of  a  river  of  the  same  name,  a  tributary  of  the  Magdalena,  thir- 
ty-five miles  from  its  mouth.  It  lies  a  considerable  distance 
east  of  the  western  Andes.  The  streets  of  the  city  are  broad, 
straight,  and  regular,  and  the  houses  are  handsome.  The  ca- 
thedral is  magnificent,  and  richly  endowed  ;  there  are  three 
parish  churches,  eight  monasteries,  four  nunneries,  and  one 
hospital.  The  public  institutions  are  an  university,  a  mint,  a 
mining  school,  and  a  library,  containing  a  very  great  and  valua- 
ble collection  of  books.  The  city  has  a  very  central  position, 
with  a  temperate  and  salubrious  climate,  and  is  surrounded  by 
one  of  the  most  healthy  and  fertile  regions  in  Colombia.  It 
was  the  sieat  of  the  Spanish  vice  royal  government,  before  the 
revolution.  Its  present  population  is  estimated  at  35,000. 
Bogota  was  founded  by  Quesada,  in  1538  ;  its  distance  from 
the  Atlantic  ocean,  by  the  way  of  Magdalena,  is  600  miles,, 
and  from  the  Pacific,  at  the  bay  of  Choco,  217  miles.  It  is 
(50  miles  from  the  navigable  waters  of  the  Meta,  a  branch 
of  the  Orinoco,  and  60  miles  from  the  port  of  Honda,  the 
head  of  navigation  on  the  Magdalena.  The  citizens  of  Bogo- 
ta have  been  distinguished  for  their  patriotism,  during  the  long 
struggle  of  the  revolution,  and  have  made  great  sacrifices  for 
the  cause  of  Liberty.  It  is  pjoposed  to  remove  the  seat  of 


STATE    OF    COLOMBIA,  11 

government  from  this  city  to  the  town  of  Ocana,  until  the  new 
city,  to  bear  the  name  of  Bolivar,  from  the  founder  of  the  na- 
tion, shall  be  built  in  a  central  situation,  according  to  the  or- 
dinance of  the  republic. 

The  city  of  Quito,  which  was  rebuilt  in  1534,  on  the  ruins 
of  an  ancient  Indian  town;  is  situated  at  the  elevation  of  9000 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  in  lat.  0  13  min.  33  sec.  N.  on 
the  eastern  acclivity  of  Pichinca,  a  lofty  eminence  of  the  west- 
ern Cordillera  of  the  Andes,  about  130  miles  from  the  Pacific. 
The  site  of  the  town  is  vt  ,-y  uneven  and  irregular  ;  the  princi- 
pal square  is  spacious,  and  has  an  elegant  fountain  in  the  centre. 
The  four  streets  on  ea«;h  side  of  the  square,  are  straight, 
broad,  and  handsome  ;  the  others  are  crooked,  and  so  rough 
and  broken,  as  to  be  impassable  for  wheel  carriages.  The 
houses  are  all  one  story  only,  and  generally  have  balconies  to- 
wards the  street. 

The  public  buildings  consist  of  a  cathedral,  town  house,  and 
numerous  churches  and  convents.  The  surrounding  country 
is  rich,  beautiful,  and  fertile,  in  the  most  valuable  productions 
of  the  temperate  and  torrid  zones.  The  climate  is  healthy  and 
delightful.  The  city  is  distinguished  for  its  manufacturing  in- 
dustry, and  is  repre  >ente  to  be  the  most  populous  city  in  the 
whole  territory  of  the  republic  ;  its  population  being  usually 
estimated  at  70,000.  In  full  view  of  this  city,  rise  some  of  the 
most  lofty  summits  of  the  Andes,  covered  with  perpetual  snows, 
and  frequently  emitting,  with  awful  grandeur,  torrents  of  flames 
and  clouds  of  smoke,  from  their  bursting  volcanoes.  The  na- 
tural port  of  Quito  is  Guayaquil. 

The  city  of  Caraccas,  t»ie  capital  of  the  ancient  captain  gen- 
eralcy  of  Venezuela,  and  the  present  seat  of  government  for 
the  department  of  Venezuela,  was  founded  in  1567  ;  and  is 
situated  in  lat.  10  deg.  31  min.  N.  in  the  beautiful,  elevated 
valley  of  the  same  nam -,•*,  which  extends  twelve  miles  from 
east  to  west,  at  the  height  of  2,598  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  The  city  lies  in  a  delightful  and  fertile  spot  in  the  val- 
ley, at  the  foot  of  the  cloud  capted  Cielo,  one  of  the  summits 
of  the  Atlantic  branch  of  the  Andes.  Its  site  is  a  square  with 
a  side  of  2000  paces,  and  its  surface  every  where  uneven  and 
irregular,  just  as  nature  formed  it.  The  houses  are  well  built, 
some  of  brick,  but  the  greater  part  are  of  masonry,  in  frame 
work,  after  the  manner  of  the  Romans.  The  climate  is  de- 
lightful. This  city,  which  may  be  considered  as  the  cradle  of 
the  revolution  in  South  America,  contained,  previous  to  the 
year  1811,  45,000  inhabitants.  It  was  the  seat  of  an  univer- 
sity, and  its  inhabitants  were  distinguished  for  their  intelli- 
gence and  patriotism. 


12  HISTORY    AND    PRESENT 

In  addition  to  the  calamities  of  the  war  of  the  Revolution, 
in  which  the  city  had  its  full  share  since  its  commencement  iii 
1810,  it  was  partly  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  on  the  26th  of 
March,  1812  ;  many  of  its  houses  and  churches  were  destroy- 
ed, and  more  than  10,000  inhabitants  are  said  to  have  perish- 
ed beneath  the  ruins,  ^ince  the  expulsion  of  the  Spanish  ar* 
my,  and  the  restoration  of  tranquillity,  the  city  is  represented 
to  be  again  in  a  prosperous  condition.  Its  population  is  in- 
creasing, its  commerce  and  industry  reviving,  and  many  Eng- 
lishmen and  North  Americans  have  lately  emigrated  to  this 
city.  Among  others,  is  the  celebrated  Joseph  Lancaster,  with 
a  view  of  diffusing  the  benefits  of  his  system  of  education. 
The  seaport  of  Caraccas  is  La  Guayra,  one  of  the  most  thri- 
ving and  commercial  towns  on  the  Atlantic  border.  The  dis- 
tance from  Caraccas  to  La  Guayra  is  fifteen  miles  over  a  lofty 
ridge. 

The  other  considerable  cities  ure  Popayan,  which  was  foun- 
ded in  1636,  and  stands  in  lat.  2  deg.  50'  N.  on  the  east  side  of 
a  mountain  of  considerable  height,  called  M.  from  the  resem- 
blance it  bears  to  that  letter.  The  streets  are  broad,  straight, 
and  level ;  the  houses  are  built  of  unburnt  bricks,  and  some 
of  them  are  two  stories  high.  Its  public  buildings  consist  of 
a  cathedral,  three  monasteries,  and  two  nunneries.  The 
population  is  estimated  by  some  at  20,000,  and  by  others  at 
£5,000.  The  Molino,  issuing  from  the  mountain  of  M.  runs 
through  the  city.  The  Cauca  runs  about  three  miles  to  the 
north  ;  the  distance  from  Popayan  to  the  Pacific  is  90  miles. 

Guayaquil,  the  sea  port  of  Quito,  is  situated  in  south  lat.  2 
deg.  12'  on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  which  empties  into  the 
gulf  or  bay  of  Guayaquil.  The  city  stands  about  18  miles  up 
the  river,  and  contains  a  population  of  20,000  souls.  The 
streets  are  broad  and  straight :  the  houses  are  built  of  wood, 
large  and  beautiful,  it  is  the  principal  naval  station  of  the 
republic  on  the  Pacific,  and  enjoys  an  extensive  and  increas- 
ing commerce.  Guayaquil,  having  recently  changed  her  polit- 
cal  condition,  by  the  spontaneous  will  of  the  people,  almost 
without  a  struggle,  her  commercial  prosperity  has  scarcely  beeji 
interrupted  by  the  events  of  the  war.  She  may,  therefore,  be 
ranked  among  the  richest  cities  of  the  republic.  The  females 
of  this  city  are  distinguished  for  the  fairness  of  their  complex- 
ions, and  the  social  character  of  the  inhabitants  is  much  com- 
mended by  strangers.  The  town  is  defended  by  three  forts  ; 
the  river  is  navigable  to  the  town  for  vessels  of  any  size,  and 
affords  the  best  harbour  on  the  coast.  A  naval  school  hfrs 
lately  been  established  at  this  place. 

Fanama,  the  other  important  commercial  teWn  on  the  Pa. 


STATE    OP   COLOMBIA.  13 

cific,  is  the  oldest  city  on  the  South  Sea  ;  it  was  founded  in 
15  H,  and  is  situated  in  N.  lat  8°  57'  4 8"  on  a  bay  of  the  same 
name.  The  town  is  built  on  a  rocky  peninsula,  and  is  fortified* 
This  place  has  lost  much  of  its  commercial  prosperity,  but 
nevertheless  enjoys  a  very  commanding  local  position.  Its 
population  is  about  10,000,  a  considerable  portion  of  which  are 
slaves  ;  most  of  the  inhabitants  have  some  knowledge  of  the 
English  language,  which  is  acquired  by  their  intercourse  with 
the  Island  of  Jamaica.  A  good  road  to  Porto  Bello,  on  the 
opposite  shore  of  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  would  be  an  object  of 
great  utility,  and  the  ground  is  said  to  be  very  favourable  for 
such  an  undertaking.  Porto  E ello,  in  N.  lat.  9°  33'  has  a 
beautiful  local  and  commercial  situation.  This  town  has  shar- 
ed the  same  fate  as  Panama,  and  has  greatly  declined  from  its 
former  glory,  whilst  the  seat  of  the  commerce  of  the  galleons  ; 
but  still  it  maintains  so  ne  trade,  which  is  supposed  to  be  in- 
creased since  the  revolutic- 

Chagres,  a  town  situated  on  a  fine  bay,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  of  the  same  name,  44  miles  east  of  Porto  Bello,  enjoys 
some  commerce.  The  mo  "  important  commercial  city  on  the 
Atlantic  sea  board  is  Carthagena,  which  is  the  principal  naval 
station  of  the  republic  on  the  Atlantic.  This  city  is  situated 
inN.  lat.  10°  25' 48",  the  distance  of  102  miles  west  of  the 
river  Magdalena,  and  is  divided  into  two  parts  ;  the  city  pro- 
per, so  called,  and  Gimani.  The  city  is  surrounded  by  a  thick, 
high  wall,  and  Gimani  is  vjilt  in  a  semicircular  form  ;  it  ig 
fortified  in  front  by  a  strong  wall,  and  united  to  the  city  by  a 
bridge  over  the  ditch.  The  city  is  defended  by  a  strong  fort 
and  batteries,  on  the  surrounding  hills.  Near  the  town  is  the 
lake  Tesca,  which  is  3  mil  ^s  in  circumference,  and  communi- 
cates with  the  city  and  the  sea.  The  bay  of  Carthagena  is 
nine  miles  in  extent ;  its  principal  entrance  is  defended  by 
strong  fortifications.  The  population  of  the  city  is  estimated 
at  16,000,  arid  its  comrm  vtte  is  considerable  and  increasing. 
This  town  has  partaken  largely  of  the  bitter  fruits  of  the  revo- 
lution ;  it  has  experience*  itwo  long  and  tedious  sieges,  during 
the  last  ten  years.  On  the  5th  of  December,  1815,  2000  of 
its  patriotic  inhabitants  emigrated  in  a  body,  embarking  in  elev- 
en armed  vessels,  being  unable  any  longer,  to  resist  the  sue* 
cessful  efforts  of  the  royalists  under  Morillo.  A  naval  school 
hasf recently  been  established  at  Carthagena. 

Savanilla,  a  new  commercial  town,  is  on  the  Magdalena,  2 1 
miles  from  its  mouth.  '•  anta  Martha,  a  considerable  com- 
mercial town,  of  5000  inhabitants,  connected  with  the  Magda- 
lena by  interior  navigation,  lies  45  miles  east  of  the  Magdale- 


14  HISTORY    AND    PRESENT 

na  ;  150  miles  further  east  is  Rio  Hacha,  which  is  also  a  place 
of  considerable  trade. 

Maracaibo,  on  the  lake  or  gulf  of  the  same  name,  is  likewise 
a  considerable  ommercial  town,  the  population  of  which  was 
more  than  20,000  previous  to  the  revolution  ;  but  it  is  now 
much  reduced  by  the  calamities  of  the  revolutionary  war.  This 
city,  by  its  easy  communication  with  the  interior,  possesses 
superior  commercial  advantages. 

Puerto  Cabello,  the  sea-port  of  Valencia,  has  an  excellent 
harbour,  with  strong  fortifications.  This  town  has  also  suffer- 
ed much  by  the  operations  of  the  war,  and  has  been  consider- 
ed a  very  important  military  position.  It  is  the  last  from 
which  the  royalists  were  expelled  in  the  whole  territory  of 
the  republic.  It  lies  in  lat.  10°  20' N.  and  its  population  was 
estimated  at  7, 500  before  the  war. 

Cumana  and  Barcelona  are  the  principal  cities  on  the  east- 
ern coast  of  the  republic.  The  former  lies  one  mile  south  of 
the  gulf  of  Curiaco,  on  a  sandy  and  dry  soil,  in  lat.  10°  37' N. 
and  was  built  in  1520  ;  it  contained  before  the  revolution,  24, 
000  inhabitants,  chiefly  Creoles,  who  were  industrious  and  en- 
terprising. The  climate  is  warm,  but  healthy;  the  popula- 
tion of  Cnmana  was  much  diminished  by  the  revolutionary 
struggle.  Barcelona  was  founded  in  1634,  and  is  built  on  a 
plain  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Neveri,  three  miles  from  its 
mouth,  in  N.  lat.  10°  10'.  Its  population  was  14,000  previous 
to  the  revolution  ;  it  is  now  much  reduced  ;  its  distance  from 
Cumana,  is  60  miles.  Thirty  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Cumana  is 
situated  the  city  of  Curiaco,  on  a  river  of  the  same  name, 
that  discharges  its  waters  into  the  gulf  of  Curiaco. 

La  Guayra,  the  port  of  Caraccas,  is  at  present  next  to  Car- 
thagena,  the  most  important  sea  port  on  the  Atlantic  border  ; 
its  population  was  6,000  before  the  revolution  ;  the  road  to 
Caraccas  is  over  a  mountain  6095  feet  high,  and  is  very  diffi- 
cult and  laborious  to  travel  during  the  wet  season.  The  city 
of  Angostura,  the  chief  seat  of  commerce  on  the  great  river 
Orinoco,  with  a  population  of  10,000  inhabitants,  is  situa- 
ted about  270  miles  from  the  mouth  of  this  river.  Angostu- 
i-a  was  wrested  from  the  royalists  in  1817,  and  was  for  several 
years  the  seat  of  the  Venezuelan  republic,  while  most  of  the 
country  was  in  possession  of  the  Spaniards.  From  this  place 
the  gallant  Bolivar  led  forth  the  little  army  of  his  own  crea- 
tion composed  of  foreigners  and  natives  hastily  collected 
together,  and  penetrated  into  the  beart  of  New  Grenada  ;  and 
with  astonishing  celerity,  emancipated  that  fine  country  from 
the  Spanish  yoke,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  a  free,  independ- 
ent, and  powerful  nation, 


STATE  OP   COLOMBIA.  15 

Coro,  in  lat.  10°  8'  N.  at  the  bottom  of  the  gulf  of  the  same 
name,  stands  on  a  dry,  sandy  plain,  with  a  population  estimated 
at  10,000  before  the  revolution,  and  is  distant  from  Maracaibo 
165  miles  east.  The  province  of  Coro,  belonging  to  the  de- 
partment of  Zulia,  is  in  many  parts  arid  and  TSteril. 

Among  the  numerous  interior  towns,  that  abound  in  every 
section  of  the  republic,  is  Valencia,  situated  on  a  beautiful 
lake  of  the  same  name.  This  place  was  at  one  period  the  seat 
of  government  for  the  Venezuelan  republic,  and  is  situated 
24  miles  south  of  Puerto  Cabello,  and  90  miles  to  the  west  of 
Caraccas.  Cucuta,  the  town  where  the  constitution  was 
formed,  is  situated  in  a  valley  of  the  same  name,  about  300 
miles  to  the  north  east  of  Bogota  ;  near  Cucuta  lies  the  su- 
perb valley  of  San  Crystobal.  Mompox,  a  military  position, 
situated  on  an  island  in  the  Magdalena,  195  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  river,  is  375  miles  from  Bogota.  The  cities  of 
Barinas,  Guanore,  Araure,  San  Carlos,  and  San  Fernando  de 
Apure,  are  situated  in  the  department  of  Venezuela,  and 
were  rapidly  advancing  previous  to  the  war,  which  visited  this 
province  with  the  full  measure  of  its  destructive  fury.  The 
province  of  Barinas,  which,  with  that  of  Caraccas,  forms  the 
department  of  Venezuela,  consists  entirely  of  plains  intersec- 
ted by  numerous  rivers,  most  of  them  navigable,  which  de- 
scend into  the  Apure,  and  thus  communicate  with  the  Orinoco. 
The  banks  of  these  rivers  are  covered  with  superb  forests,  and 
when  cleared,  the  soil  produces,  abundantly,  cocoa,  indigo, 
cotton,  sugar-cane,  tobacco,  maize,  rice,  and  all  kinds  of  fruits 
and  vegetables.  The  savannas  support  innumerable  herds  of 
cattle.  The  Cordillera  of  Pamplona,  Merida,  and  Truxillo, 
border  on  this  province  on  the  west  and  north,  and  supply  it 
with  wheat  and  every  other  production  of  temperate  climates, 
even  to  the  luxury  of  snow. 

The  city  of  Merida  was  founded  in  1593,  and  is  situated  in 
a  valley  9  miles  long,  in  lat.  8°  10'  N.  ;  its  population  was  . 
1 1,500  previous  to  the  revolution  ;  it  is  240  miles  from  Mara- 
caibo, and  420  S.  E.  from  Caraccas.  The  province  of  Meri- 
da, now  belonging  to  the  department  of  Zulia,  possesses  the 
advantages  of  a  delightful  climate,  and  a  fertile,  though  moun- 
tainous territory.  Wheat,  tobacco,  and  all  fruits  and  grains 
of  temperate  climates,  are  raised  abundantly  in  the  high 
lands  ;  while  the  low,  warm  vallies,  produced  sugar-cane  and 
cocoa,  and  all  tropical  fruits  ;  coffee  could  be  cultivated  to 
great  advantage  on  the  mountains.  The  city  of  Truxillo,  is 
situated  in  lat.  8°  40'  N.  60  miles  from  Merida,  with  a  popula- 
tion of  7,600.  The  district  of  Truxillo  differs  little  from  that 
of  Merida,  except  that  its  mountains  are  steeper,  and  the  vat- 


16  HISTORY    AND   PRESENT 

leys  more  confined.  Barquisimeto  is  situated  in  lat.  9°  44'  N. 
on  an  elevated  plain,  which  is  o;.^nto  every  breeze  ;  its  popu- 
lation is  11,000,  it  was  founded  R  1552,  and  is  450  miles  N. 
N.  E.  from  Bogota.  Tocuyo  is  situated  45  miles  S.  W.  of 
Barquisimeto,  iirlat.  9°  35'  N.  in  a  valley  of  the  same  name, 
with  a  population  estimated  at  10,000.  before  the  revolution. 
There  are  several  towns  near  the  southern  border  of  the  re- 
public ;  among  which  is  the  city  of  Cuenca,  with  a  population 
of  20,000  inhabitants. 

The  island  of  Margaritta,  which  belongs  to  the  department 
of  Orinoco,  is  situated  24  miles  north  of  the  peninsula  of  Araya. 
in  Cumana.  The  island  consists  of  two  peninsulas  connected 
by  a  narrow  isthmus,  andlier,  between  lat.  10°  50'  and  11°  10' 
-N. ;  the  surface  of  the  island  is  uneven,  consisting  of  hills  and 
dales.  The  soil  is  sandy,  producing  some  cotton,  sugar,  and 
other  tropical  productions.  The  capital  of  the  island  is  As- 
sumption, situated  near  its  centre. — There  are  several  other 
villages  in  the  vallies.  The  principal  port  is  Fampater,  which 
is  fortified.  The  population  of  this  island  is  estimated  at  20,000 
inhabitants,  who  are  distinguished  for  their  bravery  and  patri- 
otism, particularly  for  their  gallant  deeds  in  the  month  of  xNo- 
vember  1816,  when  every  citizen  became  a  soldier,  and  with 
desperate  bravery,  defeated,  in  ten  pitched  battles,  the  formi- 
dable hosts  of  Gen.  Morillo  ;  and  also,  for  the  memorable  de» 
fence  made  in  July,  the  following  year,  when  3,500  Spanisfy 
troops,  under  the  same  commander,  were  forced  to  retire  hi 
disgrace,  with  the  loss  of  a  thousand  men. 

Mines. — The  gold  which  has  heretofore  been  obtained  in 
Colombia,  has  been  found  mingled  with  the  soil  near  the  sur- 
face, from  which  it  is  separated  by  repeated  washings.  This 
service  was  formerly  performed  by  negro  slaves,  who  cannot 
bear  the  cold  air  of  the  mines  in  Mexico,  but  are  more  able 
than  the  Indians  to  perform  labour  in  the  field.  The  metal 
has  been  found  in  some  districts  in  large  grains,  particularly 
near  Pamplona,  where  single  labourers  have  collected,  in  one 
day,  the  value  of  seven  hundred  and  fifty  dollars.  A  mass  of 
fine  gold  was  found  of  the  value  of  more  than  three  thousand 
dollars,  which  was  sent  to  Spain  by  the  governor. — Gold  is 
very  generally  dispersed  in  the  town  of  Rio  Hacha  ;  it  is  found 
in  the  sand  washed  down  from  the  declivities  ;  but  the  prov- 
inces of  Antioquia  and  Choco,  now  included  in  the  departments 
of  Cundinamarca  and  Cauca,  where  gold,  silver,  and  platina 
abound,  are  the  most  distinguished  for  their  mineral  wealth. 
Gold  is  hot  only  found  mixed  with  the  soil,  which  has  been 
washed  down  from  the  declivities  of  mountains,  but  also  in  the 
beds  of  rivers ;  emeralds  are  likewise  found  in  the  beds  of 


STATE    OF   COLOMBIA.  17 

rivers,  particularly  in  a  small  stream,  about  sixty  miles  from 
Bogota,  where  almost  every  stone  contains  an  emerald.    There 
are  unworked  mines  of  silver  in  Mariquita,  and  undoutedly 
undiscovered  mines  in  various  parts  of  Colombia,  as  the  mines 
here  have  been  an  object  of  less  attention  than  in  Mexico  or 
Peru,  and  from  the  want  of  capital  and  machinery,  they  have 
not  been  worked  to  the  same  extent  or  productiveness.    But 
little  attention  comparatively  has  been  paid  to  mining  in  Co- 
lombia, and  it  has  generally  been  supposed  that  the  precious 
metals  were  less  abundant  in  the  former,  than  in  the  latter 
countries ;  but  the  late  Manuel  Torres,  Charge  des  Affairs 
from  Colombia  to  the  United  States,  asserted  that  the  precious 
metals  in  Colombia  are  not  inferior  to  those  of  Mexico  or  Pe- 
ru, with  the  advantage  of  their  discovery  being  more  easy  and 
less  expensive.*    Since  the  commencement  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  the  product  of  the  mines  in  the  departments  now  com- 
posing the  Colombian  republic,  were,  2,990,000  dollars.     The 
revolution  cannot  fail  of  having  a  most  favourable  influence  on 
the  mining  operations,  by  the  introduction  of  foreigners  and 
foreign  capital,  the  reduction  of  the  duties,  and  the  patronage 
of  a  liberal  and  enlightened  government.     When  adequate 
machinery,  and  scientific  skill,  are  applied  to  the  mining  ope- 
rations in  Colombia,  the  immense  treasures  which  now  lie 
bedded  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  will  be  developed,  and  prove 
an  inexhaustible  source  of  wealth  and  of  national  prosperity. 
There  are  mints  at  Popayan  and  Bogota,  where  the  gold  and 
silver  is  coined.     Formerly,  a  considerable  part  of  the  gold 
was  not  coined  in  the  country,  but  smuggled  into  the  West 
Indies. 

On  the  coast  between  Rio  Hacha  and  Maracaibo,  there  is  a 
pearl  fishery  carried  on  by  the  Indios  Bravos,  or  wild  tribes, 
who  inhabit  the  country  ;  but  the  profits  of  the  fishery,  prob- 
ably, are  chiefly  realized  by  their  more  civilized  neighbours, 
who  trade  with  them.  The  pearls  are  much  superior  to  those 
of  the  east.  By  a  decree  of  congress  in  August,  1823,  all  the 
pearl  fisheries  of  Colombia  were  granted  to  a  company  on  cer- 
tain conditions. 

Roads  and  Internal  Communications. — Colombia,  like  every 
part  of  what  was  Spanish  America,  is  deplorably  deficient  in 
these  advantages.  This  country  is  not  like  Mexico,  destitute, 
in  a  great  measure,  of  internal  water  communications ;  its  nat- 
ural advantages  are  almost  unrivalled  ;  but  from  the  want  of 
mechanic  arts  and  of  science,  the  country  has  not  yet  enjoyed 
the  benefit  of  them.  The  Orinoco,  the  Magdalena,  the  lake 

*  See  his  letter  to  the  Sec.  State,  Nov.  30th,  1821, 
VOL.  1L  26 


18  HISTORY    AND    PRESENT 

Maracaibo,  and  the  river  Zulia  which  empties  into  it,  particu- 
larly afford  resources  for  extensive  lines  of  internal  navigation, 
which  only  want  to  be  improved.  The  Orinoco,  by  means  of 
its  large  branches,  the  Apure  arid  the  Meta,  opens  a  commu- 
nication with  the  whole  level  country,  to  within  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  miles  of  Bogota,  extending  more  than  six  hun- 
dred miles  into  the  interior.  From  the  mouth  of  the  Magda- 
lena  to  Honda,  the  head  of  boat  navigation,  is  about  550  miles; 
the  current  is  very  rapid.  The  internal  navigation  is  rude 
and  unimproved,  consisting  of  canoes  poled  up  and  down  the 
rivers  by  the  bogas  or  boatsmen,  of  whom  there  is  a  great 
number  on  all  the  navigable  streams.  It  is  said  that  there  are 
ten  thousand  of  this  class  of  men  on  the  Magdalena ;  their 
principal  residence  is  at  Mompox.  From  the  rapidity  of  the 
current  of  the  Magdalena,  in  going  up  the  stream,  thirty  miles 
a  day  is  reckoned  a  good  day's  journey  ;  and  from  the  various 
delays,  which  usually  occur,  the  voyage  from  the  mouth  of  the 
river  to  Honda  is  seldom  performed  in  less  than  thirty  days, 
and  Captain  Cochrane,  who  lately  ascended  this  river,  was 
forty-six.  The  lake  Maracaibo  is  the  most  beautiful  expanse 
of  water  in  the  world,  extending  150  miles  into  the  interior, 
and  with  the  river  Zulia,  its  principal  tributary  water,  affords 
extensive  advantages  for  interior  navigation. 

In  this  age  of  improvement,  when  "  unconquerable  steam" 
has  wrought  such  a  revolution  in  river  and  coast  navigation, 
and  under  the  auspices  of  a  free  and  enlightened  government, 
it  cannot  be  doubted  that  this  simple  and  rude  navigation  of 
some  of  the  noblest  rivers  in  the  world,  the  same  that  was  pur- 
sued by  the  natives,  when  the  country  was  discovered,  will 
soon  be  superseded  by  steam  boats  :  or,  if  there  should  be 
found  any  difficulty  in  the  use  of  these,  by  some  other  impro- 
ved plan  of  internal  navigation.  The  congress  have  directed 
their  attention  to  this  object,  and  at  their  session,  in  1823, 
granted  patents,  on  certain  conditions,  to  James  Hamilton, 
and  John  Elbers,  for  the  privilege  of  running  steam  boats  on 
the  Orinoco  and  the  Magdalena.  Steam  navigation  has  con- 
sequently been  introduced  into  Colombia  ;  in  the  fall  of  1825, 
a  steam  boat  made  the  first  passage  up  the  Magdalena  to- 
Honda.  From  the  many  difficulties  attending  the  first  at- 
tempt, which  could  not  be  foreseen,  or  measures  taken  to  ob- 
viate them,  the  passage  was  protracted  to  eighty  days.  This 
experiment  not  only  led  to  a  knowledge  of  the  river  but  sug- 
gested many  improvements,  so  that  it  was  expected  the  second 
trip  which  was  commenced  the  last  of  November,  would  be 
made  in  thirty  days.  Mr.  Anderson  the  minister  of  the  Uni- 
ted States,  Senor  Gual,  the  Colombian  secretary  of  foreign  af  • 


STATE    OF    COLOMBIA.  19 

fairs,  both  destined  to  Panama,  to  attend  the  Congress,  were 
among  the  passengers.  Several  steam  boats,  one  named  Boli- 
var, destined  for  internal  navigation  in  Colombia,  have  been 
built  in  the  United  States.  Perhaps  no  country  in  the  world 
is  better  accomodated  with  great  natural  canals,  than  Colom- 
bia ;  the  Orinoco  and  its  branches,  lake  Maracaibo,  the  Zu- 
lia,  Palma  and  its  other  tributaries,  the  Magdalena,  the  Cau- 
ca  and  the  Atrato,  afford  an  extent  of  interior  navigation  un- 
rivalled. The  advantages  of  these  interior  waters  will  be  in* 
creased  an  hundred  fold  by  the  introduction  of  steam  naviga- 
tion ;  and  probably  the  time  is  not  very  distant,  when  there 
will  be  as  many  steam  vessels  on  these  great  inland  canals,  as 
there  are  now  on  the  Mississippi,  the  Ohio  and  the  Missouri.'* 

As  it  respects  roads,  they  are  scarcely  known  in  Colombia ; 
throughout  the  whole  republic,  there  is  not  a  road  passable 
for  any  considerable  distance  with  wheel  carriages,  nor  scarce- 
ly for  mules,  without  exposure  of  life  or  limbs.  Travelling, 
and  transportation  of  every  kind  by  land,  is  done  by  mules  :  the 
carriage  is,  consequently,  tedious  and  expensive,  so  that  the 
bulky  produce  of  the  interior  will  not  bear  transportation  to 
the  coast ;  and  the  expense  of  carriage,  on  the  more  heavy 
and  bulky  articles  of  importation,  raises  them  to  a  high  price 
in  the  interior.  Whilst  the  Spaniards  possessed  Puerto  Ca- 
bello,  the  cocoa,  coffee  and  cotton,  raised  in  the  vicinity  of  Va- 
lencia, would  scarcely  bear  the  expense  of  transportation  to 
Caraccas.  The  want  of  good  internal  communications  is  most 
seriously  felt  in  Colombia,  and  greatly  depresses  the  agricultu- 
ral interests  in  the  interior. — These  disadvantages  will,  prob- 
ably, soon  be  partially  overcome  by  improving  the  navigation 
of  rivers,  and  opening  turnpike  or  artificial  roads. 

Government. — The  natural,  but  mistaken  apprehension  of  a 
union  among  states  similarly  situated,  and  having  a  common 
interest,  of  which  history  affords  so  many  examples,  has  been 
strikingly  illustrated  in  Colombia.  When  the  country  threw 
off  the  Spanish  yoke,  not  only  Venezuela  and  New  Granada, 
which  had  been  separate  governments,  but  many  of  the  prov- 
inces of  each,  formed  juntas  for  themselves,  declared  their  in- 
dependence, and  raised  military  forces  to  maintain  it,  not  only 
against  the  authority  of  Spain,  but  that  of  the  general  govern- 
ments established  by  the  revolutionists  claiming  jurisdiction 
over  them.  In  New  Granada,  the  congress  composed  of  dep- 
uties from  a  number  of  the  provinces,  were  obliged  to  make 
war  upon  the  provinces  of  Cundanimarca  and  Carthagena,  to 
force  them  into  a  union,  or  to  compel  obedience  to  the  decrees 
of  the  congress.  Although  these  contentions  disparaged  and 
greatly  injured  their  cause  ;  yet  it  is  not  improbable  that  the 


20  HISTORY    AND    PRESENT 

existence  of  so  many  independent  governments,  was,  an  the 
whole,  serviceable  in  the  prosecution  of  the  war.  Hostilities 
were  carried  on  by  the  general  governments  of  Venezuela  and 
New  Granada,  and  also  by  the  governments  of  many  of  the 
provinces  at  the  same  time,  in  conjunction  or  separately,  and 
some  times  in  the  latter  mode,  when  they  were  at  war  with 
each  other.  When  the  patriots  were  overcome  in  one  prov- 
ince, they  kept  up  resistance  in  another  ;  and  when  the  armies 
of  the  congress  were  defeated,  and  the  government  itself 
overthrown  ;  still  the  provincial  juntas  would  keep  alive  the 
spirit  of  resistance.  W  hen  the  cause  was  prostrated  in  Vene- 
zuela, it  was  maintained  in  New  Granada,  and  the  former 
again  liberated  by  troops,  furnished  by  the  latter.  The  exist- 
ence of  so  many  independent  separate  governments,  all  of 
whom  were  engaged  in  carrying  on  the  war,  distracted  the 
attention  of  the  Spanish  chiefs,  and  greatly  embarrassed  their 
operations  ;  but  on  the  other  hand,  it  prevented  the  concen- 
tration of  power,  and  the  establishment  of  an  energetic  and 
efficient  government,  as  well  as  occasioned  almost  constant 
dissentions. 

It  required,  however,  a  long  course  of  fatal  experience  to 
overcome  the  apprehensions  and  prejudices  which  existed 
against  a  consolidated  government,  embracing  all  the  provin- 
ces composing  the  present  territory  of  Colombia  ;  and  it  is 
probable,  that  it  could  not  have  been  effected,  at  least,  in  a 
peaceable  manner,  except  for  the  great  influence  of  Bolivar. 
The  government  established  in  Venezuela,  in  1811,  was  a  con- 
federacy similar  to  that  of  the  United  States,  and  at  that  time, 
and  long  after,  that  plan  was  almost  universally  popular,  both 
in  Venezuela  and  New  Granada.  General  Miranda,  by  fa- 
vouring a  more  concentrated  and  energetic  government,  gave 
great  offence,  and  occasioned  himself  to  be  viewed  with  sus- 
picion. The  province,  (now  department)  of  Cundanimarca, 
in  1814,  could  not  be  induced  to  unite,  under  the  most  urgent 
circumstances,  with  the  other  provinces,  with  which  it  had 
formerly  been  connected,  and  the  employment  of  troops,  and 
the  capture  of  Bogota  its  capital,  only,  could  compel  it  to  join 
the  confederation.  When  these  circumstances  are  consider- 
ed, it  is  apparent  that  the  revolution,  in  the  public  mind,  must 
have  been  very  great,  which  should  lead  to  the  union  of  Vene- 
zuela and  New  Granada,  an  event  not  apparently  even  thought 
of,  at  the  time  of  which  we  have  been  speaking,  and  to  the 
establishment  of  a  government,  which  is  not  a  confederacy 
of  provinces,  but  an  entire  consolidation  of  them  into  one 
state,  with  a  unity  of  authority.  The  first  of  these  events 
took  place  in  December,  1819,  when,  after  the  overthrow  of 


STATE    OP    COLOMBIA.  21 

he  royal  power,  by  the  great  victory  of  Boyaca,  a  congress 
vas  convened  at  Angostura.  Bolivar  delivered  to  the  con- 
gress an  elaborate  speech,  which  shews  that  he  had  studied 
profoundly,  the  principles  of  government,  their  forms,  and 
their  spirit  ;  the  object  of  which  was,  to  produce  a  conviction 
of  the  importance  of  a  union  of  Venezuela  and  New  Grenada, 
and  the  establishment  of  an  efficient  government.  On  the 
17th  of  the  month,  a  fundamental  law  was  passed,  which 
united,  in  one  state,  Venezuela  and  New  Granada,  to  be 
called  the  Republic  of  Colombia.  This  was  followed  by 
the  appointment  of  a  committee  to  prepare  a  constitution  ; 
and  one  having  been  reported,  it  was  considered  and  adopted, 
by  the  general  congress  assembled  at  Cucuta,  on  the  30th  of 
August,  1821,  and  has  ever  since  been  in  operation,  although 
'  the  government  was  not  organized  under  it,  for  some  time.* 
Its^  strength  and  merits  have  borne  the  test  of  several  years' 
trial,  during  which,  the  government  founded  on  it,  has  been 
administered  with  regularity,  firmness  and  success. 

The  principles  of  this  constitution  are  those  of  a  represent- 
ative democracy  or  republic,  but  not  on  the  federative  plan. 
There  is  but  one  supreme  national  legislature,  and  no  subor- 
dinate ones.  There  is  a  complete  unity  of  authority  or  gov- 
ernment, consequently,  in  this  important  particular,  the  system 
differs,  essentially,  from  that  of  the  United  States.  The  de- 
partments are  only  the  civil  divisions  of  the  state,  and  do  not 
possess  any  subordinate  powers  of  government,  not  so  much 
as  the  town  corporations  in  New  England.  They  are  under 
the  immediate  direction  of  an  Intendant  appointed  by  the 
president  of  the  republic  ;  and  the  provinces  or  subdivisions 
of  the  departments  are  under  a  governor,  also  appointed  by 
the  president. 

Another  important  principle  is  different  from  our  constitu- 
tion ;  the  right  of  suffrage  is  not  exercised  directly,  but  indi- 
rectly >  as  was  done  in  France.  The  people,  or  such  as  are 
qualified  to  vote,  (and  for  this  purpose  a  small  amount  of  pro- 
perty is  necessary,  or  the  exercise  of  some  trade  or  profes- 
sion) vote  for  electors,  of  which  there  are  ten  for  every  repre- 
sentative, and  these  electors  choose  the  representatives  and 
senators  to  congress,  the  president  and  vice-president.  There 
is  one  representative  for  every  30,000  of  the  population  ;  and 
when  the  fraction,  in  any  province,  is  more  than  one  half  that 

*  When  Morales  invaded  Maracaibo,  the  constitution  was  sus- 
pended in  that  and  some  of  the  adjoining  provinces  ;  and  during-  the 
war  in  Quito,  the  constitution  was  suspended  in  the  Southern  prov- 
inces. 20* 


22  HISTORY    AND    PRESENT 

number,  it  is  entitled  to  another.  Each  department  is  entitled 
to  four  senators,  two  of  which  are  chosen  every  four  years. 
The  representatives  are  chosen  for  four  years,  and  the  sena- 
tors for  eight  ;  the  president  and  vice-president  for  four,  the 
first  of  which  is  eligible  only  two  terms  in  succession. 

The  elections  of  the  people  are  held  once  in  four  years,  in 
the  parishes,  at  which  each  qualified  voter  gives  his  suffrage 
for  the  number  of  electors  to  which  the  province  is  entitled. 
The  electors  meet  in  the  capital  of  their  respective  provinces, 
once  in  four  years,  and  choose  all  the  important  officers  of  the 
government — representatives,  senators,  president  and  vice- 
president.  The  votes  of  the  electors  are  returned  to  con- 
gress, where  they  are  canvassed,  and  the  validity  of  the  elec- 
tion decided.  The  president  and  vice-president  are  chosen 
by  a  majority  of  the  votes  of  the  electors  in  all  the  provinces  ; 
but  whether  the  senators  are  chosen,  like  the  executive  by  the 
whole  body  of  electors,  or  by  the  electors  of  their  respective 
departments,  we  cannot  determine  from  any  intelligence  we 
have  obtained.  It  would  seem,  however,  that  they  are  chosen 
by  the  electors  of  their  respective  departments. 

In  our  apprehension,  there  are  great  objections  to  this  indi- 
rect mode  of  election  ;  it  is  interposing  an  intermediate  body, 
between  the  people  and  their  rulers  ;  it  weakens  the  respon- 
sibility of  the  latter,  and  diminishes  the  interest  which  the 
former  feel  in  the  government.  It  is,  also,  more  complicated, 
and  more  exposed  to  intrigue  and  corruption.  In  a  province 
having  one  representative,  six  electors  control  the  choice  ; 
where  there  is  two,  eleven  electors  possess  the  whole  control 
of  the  election  ;  in  the  departments,  a  small  number  of  per- 
sons must  possess  the  power  of  appointing  the  senators  ;  and 
estimating  the  whole  population  at  3,600,000,  there  would  be 
1200  electors  in  the  republic.  The  number  would  be,  proba- 
bly, something  greater  in  consequence  of  the  fractions  of  the 
population  of  the  provinces.  The  establishment  of  electoral 
colleges,  composed  of  a  small  number  of  individuals,  opens  a 
door  to  executive  influence  and  corruption  ;  and  this  must  be 
the  more  dangerous,  from  the  extent  of  the  executive  power, 
arising  in  part  from  the  central  system.  The  president  is  en- 
trusted with  the  general  administration  of  the  government  ; 
he  appoints  the  secretaries  of  the  home  and  foreign  depart- 
ments, of  finance  and  of  war,  ambassadors,  members  of  the 
high  court  of  justice,  the  intendants  of  the  departments  and 
the  governors  of  the  provinces  ;  he  commands  the  army  and 
the  navy,  makes  all  the  appointments  therein,  arid  directly  or 
indirectly  appoints  all  inferior  magistrates  and  officers  of  cor» 
porations. 


STATE    OF    COLOMBIA.  23 

The  consolidation  system,  or  unity  of  authority  ;  the  length 
of  the  term  of  all  legislative  and  executive  offices,  and  the 
indirect  mode  of  election,  all  contribute  to  diminish  the  pow- 
er and  influence  of  the  people,  and  consequently,  to  prevent 
their  feeling  an  interest  in  public  affairs.  The  people,  unless 
it  be  in  mere  municipal  concerns,  have  no  participation  in  the 
government,  except  the  choice  of  electors  once  in  four  years, 
the  same  as  is  done  in  the  United  States  ;  the  difference  being, 
that  our  electors  vote  only  for  president  and  vice-president, 
and  theirs  choose  not  only  these  officers^but  also  the  repre- 
sentatives and  senators.  What  interest,  with  all  the  exertions 
of  politicians  and  expectants,  would  the  people  in  the  United 
States  take,  in  public  affairs,  if  their  only  power  or  influence 
was  to  vote  once  in  four  years  for  electors  ?  During  the  late 
election  of  president,  after  a  long  and  most  animated  discus- 
sion, the  people  in  most  of  the  states  manifested  but  little  in- 
terest in  the  question,  and  gave  but  few  votes.  In  most  of  the 
towns  in  New-England,  more  interest  is  felt,  in  the  appoint- 
ment of  town  officers,  and  incomparably  more  in  the  election 
of  representatives  to  the  state  legislatures. 

In  Colombia,  it  is  true,  the  appointment  of  electors  is  much 
more  important,  not  only  because  the  electors  choose  the 
members  of,  both  branches  of  the  legislature,  but  also  because 
the  people  are  more  directly  and  immediately  interested,  both 
in  congress  and  the  executive,  than  is  the  case  in  the  United 
States.  Here,  neither  the  laws  of  congress,  nor  the  acts  of 
the  president,  scarcely  touch  the  people  in  their  common  con- 
cerns. What  would  the  people  of  the  United  States  think  of 
fiving  up  their  State  Legislatures,  and  of  suffering  the  presi- 
ent  to  appoint  their  governors,  judges,  sheriffs,  and  all  civil 
and  military  officers  ?  They  would  as  soon  consent  to  return 
to  their  colonial  dependence  on  Great  Britain. 

It  is,  however,  to  be  remembered,  that  the  condition  of  Co- 
lombia is  entirely  different  from  the  United  States,  or  what  it 
was  when  our  constitution  was  adopted.  Just  emerged  from 
the  most  degrading  and  oppressive  colonial  despotism,  the 
people  at  large  are  not  sufficiently  enlightened,  or  in  any  way 
prepared  for  a  government  founded  on  the  principles  of  that  of 
the  United  States,  where  so  much  power  is  reposed  in  the 
hands  of  the  people.  It  will  take  time  to  overcome  habits, 
the  effects  of  forms  of  government,  and  modes  of  thinking, 

which  are  the  bitter  fruits  of  a  jealous  and  gloomy  despotism. 

But  whether  the  constitution  is  theoretically  defective  or  not, 
in  preferring  the  central  to  the  federative  plan,  and  the  indi- 
rect, to  the  direct  mode  of  election,  it  possesses  many  just  and 
— -ble  principles,  constituting  the  great  landmarks  of  liberty, 


, 


24  HISTORY    AND    PRESENT 

which  evince  the  liberal  spirit  that  actuated  its  frarners.  It 
recognises  the  freedom  of  the  press  ;  the  trial  by  jury  ;  it 
abolishes  hereditary  rank  and  monopolies  ;  prohibits  all  ar- 
rests not  authorised  by  law,  and  all  extraordinary  tribunals  and 
commissions,  and  declares  the  inviolability  of  the  houses  and 
papers  of  individuals,  the  independence  of  the  nation,  the 
sovereignty  of  the  people,  the  responsibility  of  magistrates, 
and  the  equality  of  rights. 

The  judiciary  and  administration  of  justice  are  imperfect, 
from  the  influenc^of  Spanish  laws,  ordinances,  and  juridical 
regulations.  Their  civil  and  criminal  codes  are  only  a  collec- 
tion of  Royal  Ordinances,  Laws  of  Castile,  Laws  of  the  In- 
dies, compilations  of  Spanish  decrees,  and  colonial  regulations, 
abounding  in  contradictions,  and  only  calculated  to  vex  the 
suitor  with  the  "  law's  delay,"  and  the  law's  expense,  and  to 
enrich  the  lawyer.  The  government  is  fuily  sensible  of  the 
defects  of  this  system,  and  is  attempting  to  remedy  the  evil 
as  fast  as  it  can  be  done  ;  it  has  established  the  trial  by  jury 
in  cases  of  libels,  and  declared  in  favour  of  introducing  it 
generally.  But  the  long  established  habits,  prejudices,  and 
usages  of  the  people,  oppose  serious  obstacles. 

There  are  two  laws  that  have  been  adopted  by  the  congress, 
that  deserve  particular  notice,  and  the  highest  commendation  ; 
one  relates  to .  slavery,  and  the  other  to  education,  both  of 
which  will  be  more  properly  considered  under  different  heads. 
And  generally,  the  laws  which  have  been  adopted,  by  the  pres- 
ent government,  are  founded  on  just  principles  and  an  enlight- 
ened policy,  calculated  to  consolidate  and  strengthen  the  gov- 
ernment, to  promote  the  happiness  of  the  people,  and  the  pow- 
er and  prosperity  of  the  republic. 

Commerce,  Manufactures^  and  Revenue. — The  principal  ar- 
ticles of  Colombian  commerce  are  cocoa,  coffee,  chocolate, 
cotton,  indigo,  sugar,  hides,  cattle,  tobacco,  dye-woods,  medi- 
cinal drugs,  and  the  precious  metals,  gold,  silver,  and  platina. 
The  foreign  commerce  is  carried  on  principally  with  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  :  from  the  former  Colombia  re- 
ceives manufactures  of  various  descriptions,  and  military  stores, 
with  ships  for  her  navy  ;  and  from  the  latter,  flour,  manufac- 
tured goods,  military  and  naval  stores,  military  and  commer- 
cial vessels  of  various  sizes.  A  considerable  trade  is  carried 
on  with  the  Antilles,  or  West  India  islands,  which  have  al- 
ways been  principally  supplied  with  mules  and  horses  from 
this  country.  The  war  of  the  r*  volution,  however,  has  made 
such  destruction  of  cattle  of  every  kind  as  greatly  to  diminish 
this  trade.  Of  the  less  important  articles  of  commerce,  are 
mahogany,  and  other  woods  of  the  most  exquisite  beauty  and 


STATE    OF    COLOMBIA.  25 


durability  for  cabinet  work,  and  other  uses  ;  dying  plants, 
bees  wax,  honey  and  cochineal.     The  commercial   resources 
of  the  country  are  scarcely  yet  touched.     No  portion  of  the 
world  possesses  a  more  commanding  geographical  position, 
more  valuable  maritime  advantages  for  commerce,  than  Co- 
lombia ;  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  American  continent, 
washed  by  two  oceans,  possessing  an  extensive  maritime  coast 
on  both,  and  penetrated  by  noble  rivers  affording  extensive 
lines  of  navigation.     Its  Atlantic  coast  is  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood  of  the  West  Indies,  and  it  is  centrally  and  fa- 
vourably situated    for   commerce  with   Europe,  the  United 
States,  Mexico,  the  West  Indies,  and  the  Atlantic  countries 
of  South  America  ;  whilst  its  Pacific  coast  opens  to  the  repub- 
lic the  commerce  of  the  south  sea  and  whale  fisheries.     But 
great  as  are  the  geographical  facilities  and  advantages  of  Co- 
lombia for  commerce,  they  do  not  surpass  its  natural  internal 
resources.     Situated  under  the  line,  and  embracing  the  cli- 
mate, the  soil,  and  the  productions  of  the  three  zones  ;  rich  in 
mineral  treasures,  in  boundless  forests  of  valuable  woods,  com- 
prising immense  savannas,  whose  spontaneous,  perpetual  ver- 
dure sustains,  almost  without  the  care,  and  entirely  without 
the  expense  of  man,  vast  herds  of  cattle  ;  in  short,  no  coun- 
try possesses  more  extensive  and  diversified  natural  resources 
of  wealth  and  of  commerce.     Industry,  art,  and  capital  only 
are  wanted,  under  the  protection  and  encouragement  of  a  free 
and  enlightened  government,  to  develope  these  exhaustless 
treasures.     In  a  country  possessing  these  vast  resources,  when 
peopled,  the  produce  of  agriculture,  of  the  mines,  and  of  the 
forests,  must  constitute  its  wealth,  and  the  sources  of  its  com- 
merce.    The  application  of  industry  to  these  objects  will  aug- 
ment the  commercial  ability  of  the  country,  in  a  ratio  corres- 
ponding with  the  increase  of  labour  ;  and  this  will  be  greatly 
stimulated  by  a  free  and  stable  government,  by  the  multiplica- 
tion of  population,  the  improvement  of  the  arts,  and  the  intro- 
duction of  capital.     Wise  laws  and   a  judicious  tariff  must 
have  great  influence  on  the  commercial  prosperity  of  Colom- 
bia.    In  a  new  country,  so  thinly  inhabited,  arid  possessing 
such  unbounded  natural  wealth,  requiring  developement,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  freedom  of  commerce,  with  all  nations, 
is  the  most  correct  policy,  and  will  best  advance  the  prosperity 
of  the  country. 

The  pernicious  consequences  of  the  restricted  and  monopo- 
lizing system  of  Spain,  it  migM  have  been  supposed,  would 
have  induced  the  present  government,  immediately,  to  secure 
to  the  country  one  of  the  most  important  advantages  of  their 
independence — freedom  of  commerce,  and  to  open  their  ports 


26  HISTORY    AND    PRESENT 

to  all  the  world.     But  long  established  regulations^,  although 
founded  in  despotism  and  ignorance,  are  not  easily  given  up 
at  once,  aud  hence  it  is  that  despotism  is  felt  long  after  the 
power,  which  sustained  it,  is  overthrown.     In  the  year  1823, 
during  the  recess  of  congress,  the  vice-president  of  Colombia, 
administering  the  government,  promulgated  a  decree,  prohib- 
iting foreigners  trading  in  the  country,  on  their  own  account, 
and  requiring  that  they  should  consign  themselves  to  the  na- 
tives.    This  injudicious  and  illiberal  measure,  which  savour- 
ed much  of  the  jealoas  and  monopolizing,  system  of  Spain, 
could  not  be  enforced,  and  the  congress  had  the  wisdom  not 
to  pass  it  into  a  law.     Tobacco  has  been  prohibited  from  be- 
ing imported  into  the  country  ;  likewise,  all  kinds  of  foreign 
spirits,  to  encourage  the  manufacture  of  domestic  brandy, 
called  aguaidiente.     Every  species  of  Spanish  produce  and 
manufactures,  introduced  into  the  country,  is  forfeited  by  the 
laws  of  the  republic.     This,  however,  is  not  so  much  a  com- 
mercial as  a  political  measure,  it  being  intended  to  distress 
Spain  ;  but  it  must,  also,  occasion  some  inconvenience  to  Co- 
lombia, and  particularly  prove  injurious  to  the  cocoa  produce, 
and  trade  of  Venezuela,  as  Spain  is  the  principal  consumer  of 
that  article.     Of  the  policy  of  these,  or  any  other  particular 
prohibitions  or  restrictions,  we  have  not  the  means  of  deci- 
ding ;  but  it  is  evident,  that,  for  a  considerable  period,  the 
commerce  of  Colombia  must  consist  of  an  exchange  of  the 
produce  of  her  exuberant  soil,  of  her  mines,  and  of  her  for* 
ests,  for  the  manufactures  of  Europe  and  the  United  States, 
Colombia  must  afford  an  extensive  market  for  the  manufac- 
tures of  England,  which  country  will  enjoy  the  principal  part 
of  the  Colombian  commerce  ;  although  the  enterprise  of  our 
citizens  will,  undoubtedly,  come  in  for  a  share.     rl  he  amount 
of  European  goods,  imported  into  New  Granada,  previous  to 
1810,  was  two  million,  five  hundred  thousand  dollars  annually, 
and  the  exports  were  one  million,  five  hundred  thousand  dol- 
lars, exclusive  of  the  precious  metals  ;  and  the  cast  and  ingots 
of  gold  exported,  are  two  million,  six  hundred  and  fifty  thou- 
sand dollars. 

The  manufactures  of  the  republic  are  chiefly  confined  to  the 
southern  departments.  Previous  to  the  year  1810,  their  an- 
nual value  was  computed  to  be  five  millions  of  dollars.  A 
very  great  extension  of  this  branch  of  industry  cannot  be  ex- 
pected in  a  country  abounding  in  such  immense  agricultural 
resources,  capable  of  affording  an  extensive  and  profitable 
commerce  with  most  of  the  world.  The  mechanic  arts  must 
be  generally  established,  and  advanced  to  a  state  of  considera- 
ble perfection  in  any  country,,  before  manufactures,  except  a 


STATE    OP    COLOMBIA.  27 

few  of  a  coarse  kind,  can  be  introduced.  This  has  not  been 
done  in  Colombia  ;  and  where  there  is  a  great  want  of  arti- 
sans, of  almost  every  description,  such  as  carpenters,  joiners, 
shipbuilders,  masons, blacksmiths,  tanners,  shoemakers,  sad- 
dlers, and  cabinet  makers,  it  will  hardly  be  expected  that  man- 
ufactures will  be  introduced  to  any  extent.  Furniture  is  im- 
ported in  all  the  sea-ports,  from  Jamaica,  Curracoa,  and  the 
United  States  ;<  but  this  article  is  too  bulky  to  be  conveyed  in- 
to the  interior,  with  the  imperfect  communication  which  exists. 

The  sources  of  revenue  of  the  republic  are  direct  and  indi- 
rect taxes ;  but  the  custom-house  duties  constitute,  by  far,  the 
most  certain  and  important  branch,  which  is  constantly  in- 
creasing, whilst  many  of  the  ancient  sources  of  revenue  have 
been  abolished.  The  duties  received  at  La  Guayra  sometimes 
amount  to  60,000  dollars  per  month.  There  are  some  of  the 
old  monopolies  continued,  as  well  as  duties  on  salt.  The  pro- 
duce of  the  Mint,  including  the  expenses  of  coinage,  amounts 
to  about  two  millions  of  dollars  annually.  The  national  debt 
is  principally  due  to  foreigners,  and  is  not  so  great  as  might  be 
expected,  considering  the  character  and  duration  of  the  war  in 
which  the  republic  has  been  engaged.  In  1822,  the  republic 
borrowed  of  Messrs.  Herring,  Graham  &  Powles  2,000,000 
sterling,  and  in  1824  a  further  loan  was  obtained  in  London  of 
4,750,000,  so  that  her  whole  foreign  debt  is  30,000,000  dol- 
lars, besides  which  she  owes  a  domestic  debt,  probably  of  no 
great  amount.  This  sum  must  be  regarded  as  small,  when  we 
consider  the  long  and  destructive  war  which  the  country  has 
gone  through  ;  and  although  considerable,  it  can  form  no  ob- 
stacle to  the  national  prosperity,  as  the  ability  of  the  republic 
to  sustain  it  will  be  constantly  and  rapidly  increasing.  The 
revenue  of  New  Granada,  previous  to  1810,  amounted  to 
3,200,000  dollars.  Among  the  sources  of  this  revenue,  was 
the  royal  right  of  a  fifth  of  the  gold  extracted  from  the  mines, 
the  tribute  or  capitation  tax  paid  by  the  Indians,  the  bulls  of 
crusade,  the  alcabala,  or  duties  paid  on  the  sale  of  every  arti- 
cle of  consumption,  and  partially  the  monopoly  of  tobacco, 
which  are  now  abolished.  The  revenue  of  Venezuela,  at  the 
same  time,  was  two  millions,  one  hundred  twenty-six  thousand 
Collars. 

In  consequence  of  the  revolutionary  war,  the  abolition  of 
many  of  the  old  branches  of  revenue,  the  entire  change  which 
has  taken  place  in  the  political  and  financial  condition  of  the 
country,  and  the  increase  of  expenditure,  which  this  and  the 
war  attending  it  have  occasioned,  the  finances  of  the  republic 
are  unpromising,  and  the  system  imperfect ,  and  undigested. 
In  1823  an  attempt  was  made  to  levy  a  direct  contribution,  in 


28  HISTORY    AND    PRESENT 

the  form  of  income  tax,  which  completely  failed  in  consequence 
(according  to  the  report  of  the  minister  of  finance)  of  the  diffi- 
culty of  obtaining  a  fair  assessment.  The  amount  of  gold  and 
silver  coined  for  the  government,  is  estimated  at  two  millions 
of  dollars  ;  but  the  expenses  attending  which,  are  computed 
at  one  million  three  hundred  thousand  dollars.  The  revenue 
from  the  salt  works  is  about  one  hundred  thousand  dollars, 
equal  to  its  former  amount ;  but  the  tobacco  monopoly  is  un- 
productive, The  imposts,  or  duties  on  goods  imported,  is  the 
main  brancfy  of  revenue  ;  but  at  present,  very  far  from  being 
sufficient  to  meet  the  expenses  of  the  government.  The  rev- 
enue, however,  from  this  source,  must  increase  with  great  ra- 
pidity, with  the  increase  of  population,  the  developement  of 
the  mineral  and  agricultural  wealth  of  the  country,  and  the 
extension  and  prosperity  of  the  commerce  of  the  republic  ;  so 
that,  at  no  distant  period,  it  may  suffice  for  the  entire  demands 
of  the  government. 

Army,  navy,  and  military  resources. — The  army  of  the  re- 
public is  highly  respectable,  both  for  size  and  character.  In 
addition  to  the  garrisons  which  are  maintained  in  the  fortified 
towns,  an  efficient  corps  is  reserved  in  each  department,  for  the 
purpose  of  defence.  In  1823,  provision  was  made  for  raising, 
immediately,  50, 000  men,  in  case  of  an  attack  from  Spain,  and 
a  powerful  Colombian  army  has  already  liberated  Peru,  and 
covered  itself  with  glory.  The  fields  ofBoyaca,  Carabobo,  in 
Colombia,  and  Ayacucho,  in  Peru,  bear  ample  testimony  to  the 
valour  and  discipline  of  the  heroic  army  of  Colombia.  There 
are  few,  if  any  examples  on  record,  of  a  country  of  the  same 
population  and  resources,  having  carried  on  so  long  and  de- 
structive a  war  as  Colombia  has  done,  and  bringing  the  same 
to  so  successful  and  glorious  a  termination.  The  navy  of  the  re- 
public has  not  arrived  at  maturity  ;  but  ample  provision  has 
been  made  for  its  extension  and  efficiency  by  large  appropri- 
ations for  the  purpose  of  building  and  purchasing  vessels  of 
war.  Naval  schools,  for  scientific  and  practical  instruction, 
have  been  established  at  Carthagena  and  Guayaquil,  the  prin- 
cipal naval  stations  belonging  to  the  republic.  A  respectable 
navy  has  already  been  created,  on  both  the  Atlantic  and  Paci- 
fic oceans,  composed  of  frigates  and  smaller  vessels,  which  has 
been  found  of  great  utility  in  assisting  the  military  operations. 
A  frigate  of  thirty-eight  guns,  called  the  Chapman,  lately  arri- 
ved at  Carthagena,  from  Sweden,  purchased  for  the  Colombi- 
an government ;  a  ship  of  the  line,  the  corvette  Boyaca,  the 
sloop  of  war  Protector,  and  several  other  ships  of  war  were 
purchased  in  England  for  the  Colombian  service  in  1825,  most 
of  which  have  arrived  at  Carthagena.  In  December  of  the 


STATE    OF    COLOMBIA.  2^ 

same  year,  the  frigate  South  America,  a  most  beautiful  and  el- 
egant vessel  was  launched  in  New-York,  designed  for  Colom -  t 
bia,  another  has  also  been  built  at  Philadelphia  for  the  same 
service.  The  republic  has  now  a  considerable  naval  force  at 
Carthagena,  and  most  of  the  Mexican  navy  is  at  the  same  place,. 
It  is  supposed  that  an  expedition  is  meditated  against  Cuba  or 
some  other  of  the  Spanish  dominions. 

The  military  resources  of  the  republic  are  ample  for  the 
purposes  of  defence  ;  and  the  materials,  for  the  formation  of 
an  efficient  army,  are  abundant.  The  people  of  colour,  of  all 
classes,  make  excellent  soldiers,  and  some  of  them  have  risen 
to  a  distinguished  rank  in  the  army  ;  and  it  cannot  be  doubted 
that  the  brave  people  of  Colombia  are  as  capable  of  maintain- 
ing ineir  independence,  as  any  other  nation,  of  the  same  mag- 
nitude, on  the  globe. 

Character  of  the  People,  Education,  $-c. — A  late  traveller  re- 
marks, that  the  most  pleasing  trait,  in  the  character  of  the 
Colombian  Creoles,  is  good  nature  ;  the  same  writer  further 
remarks,  that  they  are  not  vindictive  nor  cruel.  It  cannot  be 
expected  that  a  newborn  natvjn,  which  has  just  emerged  from 
a  state  of  colonial  degradation,  can  immediately  develope 
any  very  strong,  or  peculiar  characteristics  ;  but  it  is  due  to 
justice  to  observe,  that  the  inhabitants  of  Colombia,  during 
their  long  and  arduous  r  iruggle,  have  displayed  a  constancy 
and  devotion  to  the  cause  of  liberty  anil  indepencence,  that 
has  rarely  been  equalled  by  any  people  of  ancient  or  modern 
times  ;  and  it  is  also  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  government 
of  Colombia  has  maintained  its  public  credit  with  scrupulous 
fidelity,  and  that  all  its  relations  with  foreigners  have  been 
characterized  by  the  love  of  justice  and  liberality  ;  that  it  has 
omitted  no  means  of  diffusing  knowledge,  or  extending  the 
blessings  of  the  republican  system  among  its  citizens,  and  of 
preparing  them,  for  the  enjoyment  of  liberty  arid  the  exalted 
destiny  which  awaits  them,  as  citizens  of  a  free,  prosperous, 
and  powerful  republic.  The  enlightened  policy  of  the  pres- 
ent government,  is  gradualy  obliterating  the  casts  and  classes, 
into  which  the  population  was  divided  under  the  colonial  sys- 
tem. These  distinctions,  so  inconsistent  with  a  republican 
government,  will  soon  be  entirely  lost.  The  constitution  and 
the  laws  recognize  no  distinction  of  colour,  and  all  free  per- 
sons are  equally  eligible  to  office.  To  the  eternal  honour  of 
the  present  congress,  one  of  its  earliest  acts  had,  for  it?  ob- 
ject, the  gradual  abolition  of  slavery.  It  provides  that  no  per- 
son can  be  born  a  slave  in  the  republic,  and  prohibits  the  im- 
portation of  slaves  under  a  severe  penalty.  It  does  not  stop 
here,  but  makes  provision  for  a  manumission  fund,  by  a  tax 

VOL.  II.  21 


30  HISTORY    AND    PRESENT 

which,  according  to  the  colonial  laws,  was  retained  by  the 
government.  These  regulations  are  similar  to  those  which 
were  adopted  by  the  republican  government  at  Buenos  Ayres, 
at  an  earlier  period.  The  manumission  fund  is  applied  to 
the  purchase  of  slaves,  a  great  number  of  which  are  redeem- 
ed annually  ;  their  characters  are  strictly  inquired  into  by  the 
highest  magistrates,  and  those  are  redeemed  who  are  the  most 
deserving. 

Previous  to  the  revolution,  Caraccas  and  Santa  Fe  de  Bo- 
gota, were  the  seats  of  learning,  and  like  luminous  bodies, 
diffused  their  light  through  the  dark  atmosphere  of  the  provin- 
ces. Caraccas  gave  the  first  impulse  to  the  revolution  in 
Venezuela  ;  and  Bogota,  in  New  Granada  ;  and  a  great  por- 
tion of  the  political  intelligence,  which  afterwards  was  scat- 
rered  through  the  provinces,  was  disseminated  from  these 
cities,  which  were  the  two  eyes  of  the  republic.  Not  only  the 
light,  but  the  first  heat  of  the  revolution,  originated  in  these 
two  capitals  ;  they  not  only  diffused  a  knowledge  of  their  rights 
among  the  people,  but  set  the  first  examples  of  defending 
them.  The  inhabitants  of  Caraccas  were  more  enlightened, 
from  commerce,  and  the  intercourse  of  foreigners,  than  those 
of  Bogota,  and  their  acquirements  were  in  a  different  depart- 
ment of  science.  Politics,  philosophy,  eloquence,  metaphys- 
ics, and  the  moral  sciences,  received  the  most  attention  at 
Caraccas ;  whilst  at  Bogota,  mathematics,  natural  history, 
chemistry,  botany,  and  other  physical  sciences,  were  chiefly 
attended  to.*  Politics,  however,  were  not  neglected  at  Bo- 
gota, where  there  were  many  individuals  of  enlightened 
and  liberal  principles,  all  of  whom  took  part  in  favour  of  the 
revolution,  and  most  of  them  fell  a  sacrifice  to  their  patriot- 
ism. 

There  were,  perhaps,  few  cities  in  America,  that  possessed 
a  greater  number  of  learned  and  scientific  men,  at  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  revoution,  than  Bogota.  Doctors  Mutis,  Cal- 
ders,  Zea,  and  other  members  of  the  university,  cultivated 
mathematics  with  success  ;  and  the  former  was,  also,  a  dis- 
tinguished botanist.  The  great  work,  on  that  subject,  which 
he  left  unfinished  at  his  death,  was  prosecuted  by  his  nephew, 
Dr.  Senforso  Mutis,  Don  Jose  Lozano,  and  Don  Francisco  Jose 
Caldas,  assisted  by  the  pencil  of  Don  Salvados  Rezo.  They 
were  encouraged  in  their  researches  by  the  popular  govern- 
ment ;  but  their  labours  and  their  lives  were  cut  short  by  the 
blood  thirsty  Morillo,  who,  on  his  capture  of  the  capital  in  1816, 

*  Hall's  Colombia. 


STATE    OP   COLOMBIA.  31 

put  to  death  all   the   learned  men,  as  well  as  all  the   actors 
in  the  revolution,  which  fell  into  his  hands. 

Under  the  colonial  despotism,  the  studies  of  all  the  univer- 
'sities  and  colleges  were  established  by  law,  and  all  others  strict- 
ly prohibited,  so  that  these  institutions  were  rather  calculated 
to  cramp,  than  to  expand  the  intellect — to  confine,  rather  than 
extend  the  knowledge  of  the  student.     All  books,  which  did 
not  tend  to  strengthen  the  despotism  of  the  state,  or  the  church, 
were  prohibited,  and  the  Inquisition  charged  to  prevent  their 
introduction  into  the  country.     With  all  the  restrictions  and 
vigilance  of  the  holy  office,  however,  liberal  books  found  their 
way  into  America,  and  the  students,  in  a  clandestine  manner, 
devoted  that  time  to  Voltaire,  Rousseau,  and  Volney,  which 
they  were  required  to  apply  to  scholastic  and  theological  stud- 
ies.    Don  A.  Narino,  afterwards   one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
revolution,  translated  Rousseau's  Social  Compact,  for  which 
offence,  although  he  had   previously  obtained  the  consent  of 
the  viceroy,  he  was  immured  in  the  dungeons  of  Carthagena, 
and  from  thence  removed  to  Spain.     Under  such  a  despotism, 
which  feared  nothing  so  much  as  light,  it  is  rather  astonishing 
that  science  and  learning  made  the  progress  they  did  in  many 
parts  of  Spanish  America,  than  that  they  did  not  make  more. 
Among  the   first  subjects,  which  received  the  attention  of 
the  constitutional  coagress,  was  that  of  education.     At  its  first 
session,  it  passed  an  act  concerning  schools,  colleges,  and  uni- 
1  versities.     The  report  of  Mr.  Restrepo,  the  secretary  of  statec 
shows  that  the  government  engaged,  zealously,  in  this  impor- 
tant work.     The    Lancastrian  system  has   been  introduced, 
and  numerous  schools  have  been  established  on  that  plan. — 
The  founder  of  the  system  is  now  in  Colombia,  using-  his  ex- 
ertions to  extend  the  blessings  of  his  system  of  education,  and 
to  scatter  light  in  dark  places.     Some  few   seminaries   of  a 
higher  order  have  been  put  in  operation,  and  the  universities 
and  colleges  have  undergone  a  thorough  reformation.     A  por- 
tion of  the  old  ecclesiastical  revenue,  particularly  the  property 
ol  certain  monasteries  and  nunneries,  has  been- appropriated 
to  the   purposes   of  education.     The   restrictions  on   books 
have  not  only  been  removed,  but  they  are  allowed  to  be  im- 
ported free  of  duty,  and  also  maps,  charts,  engravings,  scienti- 
fic apparatus,  &c.     Useful  books  for  schools,  and  good  teach- 
ers are  much  wanted.     Considering  the  shortness  of  the  time, 
much  has  been  done,  although  this  is  only  to  be  considered  as 
the  first  fruits  of  the  great  work  of  mental  regeneration  and 
illumination,  which  Bolivar  and  his  patriotic  associates  in  Co- 
lombia  have  undertaken.     There  has  been  established,  during 
lie  past  year,  forty  schools  on  the  plan  of  Bell  and  Lancaster, 


32  HISTORY    AND    PRESENT 

ten  colleges,  and  three  universities,  and  a  public  library  at  the 
capital,  containing  14,000  volumes  ;  and  Bolivar,  the  founder 
of  the  republic  has  lately  made  a  large  donation  to  Caraccas, 
his  native  city,  to  constitute  a  fund  for  the  support  of  primary 
schools.  His  constant  efforts  to  emancipate  the  people  frqii) 
moral  darkness  may  add  a  brighter  lustre  to  his  name,  than  his 
great  and  astonishing  exploits  to  liberate  his  country  from  the 
tyranny  of  Spain. 

Religion. — In  Colombia,  as  well  as  in  all  parts  of  what  was 
Spanish  America,  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  is  established 
and  maintained  by  law.  More  liberality,  however,  prevails  in 
Colombia  than  in  Mexico,  and  a  certain  degree  of  toleration, 
to  other  religions,  is  allowed.  In  August,  1821,  the  congress 
passed  a  decree,  abolishing  the  Inquisition,  and  conferring  on 
the  ecclesiastical  courts,  jurisdiction  in  all  matters  of  religion, 
according  to  the  canons  and  customs  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
church.  The  law  provides,  that  juridical  proceedings  in  such 
cases  (in  matters  of  faith)  shall  take  place  only  with  respect 
to  Roman  Catholics  born  in  Colombia,  their  children,  and 
those  who,  having  come  from  other  countries,  shall  have  en- 
rolled themselves  in  the  parish  registers  of  the  Catholics  ;  but 
not  with  respect  to  strangers,  who  may  have  come  to  reside 
temporarily,  or  permanently,  nor  with  their  descendants,  who 
can,  in  no  manner  be  molested  on  account  of  their  belief, 
though  they  ought  to  respect  the  Roman  Catholic  worship  and 
religion. 

This  is  a  qualified  kind  of  toleration,  even  as  it  respects 
(of  eigners  ;  as  the  law  declares  that  they  shall  not  be  molest- 
ed, "  on  account  of  their  belief,"  which  leaves  it  uncertain, 
whether  they  are  to  be  protected  in  the  open  public  worship 
of  religion,  differing  from  the  Catholic.  This  is  a  question  of 
construction,  arising  from  the  face  of  the  law,  and  it  is  uncer- 
tain how  it  may  be  decided.  The  clergy  will  be  disposed  to 
put  the  most  illiberal  interpretation  on  the  law  ;  but  the  offi- 
cers composing  the  government,  and  all  the  enlightened  men 
throughout  the  republic,  it  is  presumed,  will  be  inclined  to 
construe  this  act,  in  the  most  favourable  and  liberal  manner. — 
This  qualified  toleration,  is  but  just  raising  the  veil  of  an  es- 
tablished faith,  to  let  in  a  glimpse  of  light  to  the  mental  vis- 
ion. It  may  be  all  that  the  prejudices  of  the  people,  and  the 
influence  of  the  clergy  will  admit ;  but  it  is  not  what  the  con- 
dition, and  prosperity  of  the  country,  or  the  civil  institutions 
which  have  been  adopted,  demand.  It  is  justly  observed  by  a 
recent  writer,  "  If  Colombia  intends  to  tread  in  the  steps  of 
t,he  United  States,  and  to  grow  powerful,  by  the  admission  of 
foreigners  into  her  bosom,  some  change  in  her  religious  sys 


STATE    OF    COLOMBIA,  33 

tern,  either  legally  sanctioned,  or  conventially  allowed,  must 
take  place."*  In  other  respects,  the  government  has  adopt- 
ed the  most  liberal  regulations  to  promote  the  emigration  of 
foreigners  into  the  country  ;  that  is,  Europeans  and  the  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States  ;  the  president  being  authorised 
to  distribute  or  dispose  of  one  million  and  a  half  of  acres  of 
the  lands  of  the  state,  for  the  encouragement  of  emigration. 

The  bondage  of  the  mind,  is  the  most  debasing  and  humili- 
tating  kind  of  slavery  ;  and  until  that  is  free,  the  nation  is  not 
completely  emancipated.  Civil  liberty  cannot  long  exist  with 
religious  intolerance  and  despotism  :  one  must  acquire  the  en- 
tire ascendancy,  when  it  will  destroy  the  other,  which  will  end 
the  conflict.  The  result  in  Colombia  cannot  occasion  doubt 
or  apprehension.  If  the  present  free  republican  institutions 
maintain  their  ground,  unqualified  toleration  and  freedom  of 
inquiry,  and  of  action  in  matters  of  religion,  must  inevitably 
follow.  This  requires  time,  as  it  cannot  be  supposed  that  a 
nation,  long  enslaved,  can  be  redeemed  in  a  day  ;  or  that  the 
accumulated  rubbish  of  three  centuries  of  political  oppression 
and  hierarchical  craft  and  corruption  can  be  removed  by  the 
first  effort  of  liberty.  The  enjoyment  of  entire  religious  free- 
dom, will  form  the  capstone  of  the  political  edifice,  whose  sure 
|  foundation,  and  lofty  structure,  it  is  hoped,  will  long  reflect 
the  sunlight  of  liberty  and  truth,  on  the  vast  declivities  of  the 
Andes,  and  over  the  outstretched  vallies  of  the  Orinoco. 

*  Hall's  Colombia. 


HISTORY 


REVOLUTION  IN  COLOMBIA. 


CHAPTER  II 

Causes  of  the  Revolution — events  in  Spain — establishment  of 
Juntas  there — overthrow  of  the  Central  Junta — establishment 
of  Juntas  in  America — massacre  at  Quito — success  of  the 
French  in  Spain — establishment  of  the  Regency  of  Cadiz — 
effect  of  these  events  on  the  Colonies — Junta  Suprema  of  Ca- 
raccas— blockade  of  Caraccas  by  the  regency — troops  sent  from 
Spain — conduct  of  the  Cortes  towards  America — congress  of 
Venezuela — declaration  of  Independence —  proceedings  in 
Spain — policy  of  England  and  France — propositions  of  Ac- 
commodation rejected  by  the  Cortes — junta  of  Caraccas  sends 
Deputies  to  England. 

WE  have  seen  what  America  was,  whilst  a  part  of  the  do- 
minions of  Spain,  and  subject  to  the  government  of  the  Span- 
ish crown,  and  are  now  to  behold  her  in  a  different  and  more 
interesting  character  ;  in  maintaining,  for  a  long  period,  with 
unexampled  perseverance,  a  desperate  struggle  for  her  inde- 
pendence, characterised  by  scenes  of  bloodshed  and  cruelty, 
unparalleled  in  modern  times  ;  to  behold  her  exertions  finally 
crowned  with  success,  and  half  a  dozen  independent  States 
suddenly  emerging  from  colonial  degradation,  take  their  rank 
in  the  family  of  nations  ;  to  witness  these  states,  founded  on 
the  will  of  the  people,  and  calculated  to  secure,  to  the  present 
and  future  generations,  independence,  liberty,  peace,  and  all 
fheir  attendant  blessings. 

The  revolution  in  Colombia  is  more  important  than  in  other 
parts  of  Spanish  America,  as  the  war  commenced  here,  and 


HISTORY  OF  THE  REVOLUTION  IN  COLOMBIA.       3/> 

the  struggle  was  more  protracted  and  severe  ;  here  Spain 
made  her  greatest  exertions,  and  the  success  of  the  revolution 
in  Colombia,  in  no  small  degree,  has  been  the  means  of  its 
ultimate  triumph  through  the  Spanish  American  dominions. 
We  shall,  therefore,  in  noticing  the  causes  or  events  which  led 
to  the  revolution,  have  to  consider  many  whose  influence  was 
general  on  all  parts  of  the  Spanish  dominions  in  America,  as 
well  as  on  those  now  constituting  the  Colombian  republic. 

The  first  causes  of  the  civil  commotions  in  America  are  to 
be  sought  for  in  the  disturbances  which  occurred  in  Spain  ; 
and  among  the  other  benefits  to  mankind,  which  the  ambition 
of  Napoleon  Bonaparte  produced,  without  his  intention,  that  of 
opening  the  way  for  the  revolution  in  South  America  is  by  no 
means  the  least  important.  His  proceedings  at  Bayonrie,  in 
compelling  Ferdinand  to  abdicate  the  throne  of  Spain,  in  fa- 
vour of  Joseph  Bonaparte,  and  the  evident  designs  of  Napoleon, 
threw  Spain  into  confusion.  The  loyalty  and  spirit  of  the  na- 
tion was  roused,  and  the  people  refused  to  submit  to  a  monarch 
imposed  on  them  by  treachery,  and  supported  by  foreign  bayo- 
nets. In  the  provinces  not  occupied  by  the  French,  juntas 
were  established,  which  assumed  the  government  of  their  dis- 
tricts ;  and  that  at  Seville,  styling  itself  the  supreme  junta  of 
Spain  and  the  Indies,  despatched  deputies  to  the  different  gov- 
ernments in  America,  requiring  an  acknowledgment  of  its  au- 
thority ;  to  obtain  which,  it  was  represented  that  the  junta  was 
acknowledged  and  obeyed  throughout  Spain.  At  the  same 
time,  the  regency  created  at  Madrid  by  Ferdinand,  when  he 
left  his  capital,  and  the  junta  at  Asturias,  each  claimed  supe- 
riority, and  endeavoured  to  direct  the  affairs  of  the  nation. 

Napoleon,  on  his  part,  was  not  less  attend*  e  to  America  ; 
agents  were  sent  in  the  name  of  Joseph,  king  of  Spain,  to  com- 
municate to  the  colonies  the  abdication  of  Ferdinand,  and  his 
accession  to  the  vacant  throne,  and  to  procure  the  recognition 
of  his  authority  by  the  Americans.  Thus  the  obedience  of  the 
colonies  was  demanded  by  no  less  than  four  tribunals,  each 
claiming  to  possess  supreme  authority  at  home.  There  could 
scarcely  have  occurred  a  conjuncture  more  favourable  for  the 
colonists,  to  throw  off  their  dependence  on  Spain,  being  con- 
vulsed as  she  was,  by  a  civil  war,  the  king  a  prisoner,  the  mon- 
archy subverted,  and  the  people  unable  to  agree  among  them- 
selves where  the  supreme  authority  was  vested,  or  which  of 
the  pretenders  to  it  were  to  be  obeyed.  The  power  of  the 
parent  state  over  its  colonies  was  de  facto  at  an  end  ;  in  con- 
sequence of  which,  they  were,  in  a  measure,  required  to 
"  provide  new  guards  for  their  security."  But  so  totally  un- 
prepared were  the  colonists  for  a  political  revolution,  that  in- 


36  HISTORY  OP    THE 

stead  of  these  events  being  regarded  as  auspicious  to  their 
prosperity,  they  only  served  to  prove  the  strength  of  their  loy- 
alty and  attachment  to  Spain.  Notwithstanding. that  the  vice- 
roys and  captain-generals,  excepting  the  viceroy  of  New  Spain, 
manifested  a  readiness  to  acquiesce  in  the  cessions  of  Bayonne. 
to  yield  to  the  new  order  of  things,  and  to  sacrifice  their  king, 
provided  they  could  retain  their  places,  in  which  they  were 
confirmed  by  the  new  king,  the  news  of  the  occurrences  in 
Spain,  filled  the  people  with  indignation  ;  they  publicly  burnt 
the  proclamations  sent  out  by  king  Joseph,  expelled  his  agents, 
and,  such  was  their  rage,  that  all  Frenchmen  in  the  colonies 
became  objects  of  insult  and  execration.  A  French  brig  ar- 
rived at  Caraccas  with  despatches,  in  July,  1808,  and  anchor- 
ed two  miles  from  the  town.  The  fact  was  no  sooner  known 
to  the  inhabitants,  than  the  utmost  excitement  ensued,  attend- 
ed with  such  hostile  feelings  towards  the  French,  that  the  cap- 
tain of  the  brig  was  obliged  to  steal  out  of  town  secretly,  in 
the  night,  to  save  his  life. 

"  On  entering  the  city,"  says  a  British  naval  officer,  "  I  ob- 
served a  great  effervescence  among  the  people,  like  something 
which  either  precedes  or  follows  a  popular  commotion  ;  and 
as  I  entered  the  large  inn  of  the  city,  1  was  surrounded  by  in- 
habitants of  almost  all  classes. 

"  I  here  learned  that  the  French  captain,  who  had  arrived 
yesterday,  had  brought  intelligence  of  every  thing  which  had 
taken  place  in  Spain  in  favour  of  France  ;  that  he  had  announ- 
ced the  accession  in  the  Spanish  throne  of  Joseph  Bonaparte, 
and  had  brought  orders  to  the  government  from  the  French 
emperor. 

"  The  city  was  immediately  in  arms ;  10,000  of  its  inhabit- 
ants surrounded  the  residence  of  the  captain-general,  and  de- 
manded the  proclamation  of  Ferdinand  the  Seventh  as  their 
king  •  which  he  promised  the  next  day.  But  this  would  not 
satisfy  them  :  they  proclaimed  him  that  evening  by  heralds,  in 
form,  throughout  the  city,  and  placed  his  portrait,  illuminated, 
in  the  gallery  of  the  town-house. 

"  The  French  were  first  publicly  insulted  in  the  coffee- 
house, from  whence  they  were  obliged  to  withdraw  ;  and  the 
French  captain  left  Caraccas,  privately,  about  eight  o'clock 
that  night,  escorted  by  a  detachment  of  soldiers,  and  so  saved 
his  life  ;  for,  about  ten  o'clock  his  person  was  demanded  of 
the  governor  by  the  populace,  and  when  they  learned  that  he 
was  gone,  three  hundred  men  followed  him  to  put  him  to 
death. 

4 'Though  coldly  received  by  the  governor,  I  was  surround- 
ed by  all  the  respectable  inhabitants  of  the  city,  and  hailed  a^ 


REVOLUTION    IN  COLOMBIA.  37 

their  deliverer.  The  news  which  I  gave  them  from  Cadiz  wa? 
devoured  with  avidity,  and  produced  enthusiastic  shouts  of 
'jrratitufle  to  England."* 

A  French  brig,  with  an  envoy  from  Napoleon,  arrived  at 
Buenos  Ay  res  the  latter  part  of  July,  with  despatches  to  Li- 
mers,  the  Viceroy,  who  issued  a  proclamation,  informing  the 
people  of  the  events  which  had  occurred  in  Spain,  and  inten- 
ded to  persuade  them  to  acquiesce  in  the  proceedings  at  Bay- 
onne,  and  submit  to  the  authority  of  Joseph  Buonaparte.  This 
proclamation  was  badly  received  by  the  people,  and  the  gov- 
ernor of  Monte  Video  accused  Liniers  of  disloyalty,  and,  dis- 
regarding his  proclamation,  established  a  junta  for  the  prov- 
ince, similar  to  those  in  Spain,  and  thus  withdrew  it  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  Liniers. 

The  intelligence  of  the  general  revolt  in  Spain,  against  the 
government  of  Joseph  Buonaparte,  and  the  establishment  of 
juntas,  was  received  in  Mexico  about  the  same  time,  and  oc- 
casioned the  greatest  enthasiasm  among  the  inhabitants  ;  and 
when  the  deputies,  some  time  after,  arrived  from  the  junta  of 
Seville,  they  were  ready  to  acknowledge  their  authority,  and 
would  have  done  it,  had  not  despatches  arrived  from  the  junta 
of  Asturias,  cautioning  them  against  the  ambitious  designs  of 
the  Andalusian  junta.  At  this  period,  so  little  thought  had  the 
colonists  of  attempting  to  avail  themselves  of  the  disorders, 
which  existed  in  Spain,  to  establish  their  independence,  and  so 
strong  was  their  loyalty,  that  they  seemed  ready  to  acknowl- 
edge the  authority  of  any  self-created  tribunal  in  Spain,  which 
claimed  to  be  respected  and  obeyed  at  home  ;  although  it  is 
evident,  that  there  was  no  more  propriety  in  the  colonies  ac- 
knowledging the  authority  of  any  of  the  juntas  in  the  Spanish 
peninsula,  than  there  was  of  Spain's  recognising  the  authority 
of  a  junta  established  in  the  colonies  ;  as  America  had  been 
subject  to  the  king  of  Spain,  not  to  the  nation. 

As  the  disorders  in  the  peninsula  continued,  and  no  sove- 
reign power  existed  there,  that  the  colonies  could  respect,  a 
number  of  the  most  distinguisned  inhabitants  of  Caraccas  pre- 
sented a  petition  to  Cacas,  the  captain-general,  recommending 
the  establishing  of  a  junta  silmlar  to  those  in  Spain.  And  al- 
though the  petitioners  had  evidently  no  other  object  than  to 
provide  for  the  security  of  the  province  ;  and,  notwithstanding 
the  principles  of  the  petition  were  taken  from  the  laws,  the 
petitioners  were  answered  by  being  arrested  and  thrown  into 
prison  ;  but  they  were  released  in  a  few  days. 

No  one  of  the  several  juntas  in  Spain,  being  able  to  acquire 


Extract  from  Capt.  Beaver's  letter  to  A.  Cochrane. 


38  HISTORY    OF    TH£ 

supreme  authority,  and  feeling  the  want  of  unity  of  power,  thtf 
provincial  juntas   agreed  to  send  deputies  to  a  central  junta., 
and  thus  constitute  a  national  authority  and  tribunal.     In  case 
of  a  suspension  of  the  royal  functions,  the  laws  of  Spain  re- 
quired the  establishment  of  a  regency ;  yet,  nevertheless,  this 
irregular  tribunal  was  obeyed,  not  only  in  Spain,  but  in  Amer- 
ica, and  so  implicitly  in  the  latter,  that,  down  to  the  year  1810, 
more  than  ninety  millions  of  dollars  were  sent  to  Spain  by  the 
colonies.     This  money  not  only  enabled  the  Spanish  patriots, 
as  they  were  called,  to  carry  on  the  war  with  France,  but  gave 
vigour   to  the  measures  they  subsequently  adopted  towards 
America,  so  that  the  colonies   furnished  the   means  of  their 
own  subjugation.  '  Many  of  the  most  intelligent  individuals 
in  America,  did  not  feel  satisfied  with  the  authority  of  the 
central  junta  of  Spain,  and  generally  much  anxiety  was   felt, 
for  the  fate  of  the  colonies,  in  case  the  French  should  prevail. 
These  sentiments  led  to  the  establishment  of  a  junta  in  the 
province  of  Quito,  in  August,  1809;   and  the  Marquis  Selva 
Allegre  was  chosen  its  president.     A  similar  junta  had  previ- 
ously been  created  in  La  Paz,  the  capital  of  one  of  the  dis- 
tricts under  the  dominion  of  the  audience  of  Charcas,  and  was 
suppressed  by  the  military   force  of  the  viceroy   of  Buenos 
Ayres.     The  viceroy  of  New  Granada,  Don  Amar,  determin- 
ed to  destroy  the  junta  formed  at  Quito  ;   but  desirous  of  ex- 
hibiting an  appearance  of  acting  in  conformity  to  the  will  of 
the  people,  he  convened  together  the  principal  inhabitants  of 
Santa  Fe  de  Bogota,  for  the  purpose  of  consulting  them  on 
the  subject ;  believing  that  they  would  not  have  independence 
sufficient  to  oppose  his  will.     In  this  however,  he  was  disap- 
pointed ;  the  assembly  not  only  approved  of  the  proceedings 
at  Quito,  but  declared,  that  a  similar  body  ought  to  be  formed 
in  Santa  Fe,  for  the  security  of  the  country,  in  case  Spain 
should  finally  be  conquered  by  the  French.     The  assembly, 
with  the  consent  of  the  viceroy,  was  adjourned,  to  meet  again 
on  the  llth  of  September,   1809,  the  first  meeting  being  on 
the  7th.     Still  thinking  to  intimidate  the  members,  the  viceroy 
required  that  each  one  should  give  his  vote  in  writing.     When 
the  assembly  again  met,  they  were  surprised  to  see  that  the 
guards   of  the  palace  were  doubled,  and  that  great  military 
preparations  had  been  made,  as  if  an  enemy  was  approaching 
the  city.     But   even  this  seasonable  display  of  military  force 
did  not  have  the  effect  of  overawing  the  assembly  ;  its  debates 
were  bold   and  spirited,  and    the  voting  by    written  ballots, 
shewing  the  opinions   of   the  different   members,  tended  to 
strengthen  their  firmness  and  resolution  ;  so  that  the  friends  of 
the  measure  were  rather  increased  than  diminished.     This 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA.  39 

occasion  first  brought  into  notice  several  individuals,  who  af- 
terwards became  distinguished  patriots  ;  Camillo  de  Torres, 
Gutierrez,  Father  Padilia,  and  Moreno,  were  among  the  num- 
ber. Being  at  length  persuaded  that  he  could  not  have  even 
the  appearance  of  acting  in  conformity  to  public  opinion,  the 
viceroy  took  immediate  steps  to  suppress  the  popular  junta  at 
Quito,  by  an  armed  force  ;  and  the  viceroy  bf  Peru,  having 
despatched  troops  for  the  same  object,  the  junta  was  obliged 
to  succumb  to  a  power,  it  had  no  means  of  resisting.  And 
although  an  assurance  was  given,  by  the  president  of  the  au- 
dinencia  of  Quito,  that  no  one  should,  in  any  way,  suffer  on 
account  of  what  had  taken  place;  yet,  in  violation  of  this 
plighted  faith,  a  large  number  of  those  who  had  belonged  to, 
or  supported  the  popular  government,  were  arrested  and  im- 
prisoned ;  and  on  the  2d  of  August,  the  following  year,  they 
were  all  massacred,  in  prison,  on  pretence  of  a  revolt.  The 
troops  stationed  in  the  city,  after  massacreing  the  prisoners, 
were  suffered  to  plunder  the  inhabitants  ;  the  scene  of  rapine 
and  carnage  was  shocking,  and  involved  the  property  of  thou- 
sands, and  the  lives  of  more  than  three  hundred  persons,  mur- 
dered in  cold  blood.  The  anniversary  of  the  fate  of  these 
early  victims,  to  the  liberation  and  independence  of  Colom- 
bia, was  commemorated  by  order  of  the  junta  of  Caraccas, 
in  1810,  in  a  solemn  manner,  with  appropriate  funeral  hon- 
ours. 

These  tyrannical  and  sanguinary  measures,  produced  great 
excitement  throughout  the  colonies,  greatly  increased  the  fer- 
ment which  prevailed,  and  tended  to  weaken  the  attachment 
that  was  felt  towards  the  parent  country.     Few  individuals, 
however,  even  thought  of  independence  ;  they  all  were  anx- 
ious for  a  re-establishment  of  the  government  of  Spain,  and  a 
reformation  in  the  colonies.     The  intelligence  of  the  distur- 
bances in  America,  and  the  violent  measures  pursued  by  the 
colonial  chiefs,  alarmed  the  central  junta  of  old  Spain,  and 
with  a  view  to  conciliate  the  wounded  feelings  of  the  Ameri- 
,<  cans,  they  issued  a  pompous  declaration,  in  which  they  assert- 
ed that  "  the  colonies  were  equal  to  the  mother  country." — • 
But  this  was  entirely  deceptive  ;  no  reformation  of  the  system, 
no  correction  of  abuses  was  attempted  ;  and,  notwithstanding 
the  disturbances  which  the  violence  of  the  governors  had  oc- 
casioned, Spaniards  were  sent  to  America,  to  fill  all  places, 
and  occupy  all  public  employment,  as  had  been  done  for  ages 
past ;  and  the  colonies  were  drained  of  money  to  supply  the 
pressing  wants  of  Spain  engaged  in  a  struggle  with  the  gigan- 
tic power  of  France. 

Nothing  could  exceed  the  astonishment  of  the  Americans, 


40  HISTORY    OP    THE 

when,  at  the  very  time  they  were  expecting  to  hear  of  the  final 
triumph  of  the  patriots  in  Spain,  and  the  restoration  Ferdi- 
dinand  VII.  they  learnt  that  the  French  were  masters  of  Mad- 
rid, and  that  the  central  junta  had  been  driven  to  Andalusia. 
But  their  confidence,  in  the  courage  of  the  people  of  Spain, 
remained  unshaken  ;  and  instead  of  being  discouraged,  by 
these  disasters,  they  only  served  to  awaken  the  zeal  of  the 
Americans  in  the  cause  of  the  mother  country,  which  they  still 
regarded  as  their  own ;  not  only  the  regular  remittances  were 
made,  but  large  sums  raised  by  subscriptions  from  every  class 
of  the  population.  The  intelligence  of  war  breaking  out  be- 
tween Austria  and  France,  and  the  victory  of  Talavera,  occa- 
sioned as  great  joy  in  America,  as  it  did  in  the  Spanish  penin- 
sula ;  but  this  enthusiasm  was  soon  allayed  by  intelligence  of 
the  most  alarming  dissentions  among  the  patriots  ;  general  de 
la  Romana  published  a  manifesto,  declaring  the  power  of  the 
central  junta  illegal,  and  the  juntas  of  Seville  and  Valencia 
protested  against  it.  These  dissentions  were  followed  by  the 
defeat  of  their  armies,  and  the  dispersion  of  the  central  junta, 
which,  having  become  obnoxious  to  popular  rage,  its  members 
were  pursued  and  insulted  by  the  people,  and  denounced  as 
traitors.  A.  few  of  the  members  assembled  in  the  isle  of  Leon, 
but  not  daring  to  exercise  the  powers  of  government  any  lon- 
ger, and  trembling  for  their  own  safety,  they  vested  their  au- 
thority in  a  regency  consisting  of  five  members.  At  this  time, 
all  of  Spain  was  under  the  dominion  of  Buonaparte,  except 
Cadiz  and  Gallicia,  which  would  have  been  the  extent  of  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  regency,  had  it  been  legally  constituted  ;  but 
for  one  illegal  body,  whose  authority  the  national  will  had  an- 
nulled, when  unable  any  longer  to  maintain  its  own  power,  to 
attempt  to  transfer  it  to  another  tribunal,  of  its  own  creating, 
was  such  a  palpable  attempt  at  usurpation,  tkat  the  new  gov- 
ernment would  not  have  been  respected  one  moment,  by  any 
one  in  Spain,  had  it  not  been  for  the  awful  crisis  which  threat- 
ened the  annihilation  of  the  last  hopes  of  the  Spanish  patriots, 
"  What  a  favourable  conjuncture  for  the  Americans  to  eman- 
cipate themselves  from  a  government  which  had  tyrannised 
over  them  for  three  centuries  !  But  instead  of  promptly  em- 
bracing the  opportunity,  they  appear  to  have  been  only  think- 
ing of  the  re-establishment  of  the  legitimate  power  of  their 
oppressors — the  restoration  of  Ferdinand  the  adored.  The 
prevailing  anxiety  of  the  colonists,  from  the  commencement 
of  the  disturbances  in  Spain,  had  been  an  apprehension  of 
falling  under  the  power  of  Bonaparte,  in  the  event  of  his  be- 
coming master  of  the  Spanish  peninsula  ;  and  as  the  cause  of 
the  Spanish  patriots  became  more  desperate,  the  fears  of  the 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA.  41 

colonists  increased.  "  What  will  become  of  us  if  Spain  shall 
be  conquered  1"  was  a  question  universally  asked  ;  and  its  dis- 
cussion directly  led  to  the  consideration  of  the  necessity  and 
the  right  of  providing  new  guards  for  their  own  security.  The 
question  only  admitted  of  two  answers  ;  for  if  Spain  fell  under 
the  power  of  France,  her  colonies  must  have  sjiared  her  fate, 
or  taken  care  of  themselves.  The  case  supposed,  presented 
but  an  alternative  to  America,  to  fall  under  the  power  of 
France,  or  become  independent.  The  first  ideas  which  the 
Americans  had  of  independence,  did  not  relate  to  independ- 
ence, as  it  respected  Spain,  but  as  to  France.  How  different 
was  the  origin  of  the  revolution  which  resulted  in  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  British  American  colonies,  from  that  which 
separated  the  Spanish  colonies  from  the  mother  country.  The 
revolution  in  the  British  colonies  originated  from  measures  of 
oppression  on  the  part  of  the  parent  state,  and  long  and  system- 
atical resistance  to  those  measures  on  the  part  of  the  colonies. 
The  Anglo-Americans  were  alarmed,  from  an  apprehension 
of  being  oppressed  by  the  parent  country  ;  but  the  Spanish 
Americans,  although  tyrannised  over  by  Spain  for  centuries, 
were  terrified  at  the  prospect  of  the  overthrow  of  the  power  ol 
their  oppressors,  and  that  that  event  would  place  them  under 
the  dominion  of  a  foreign  power,  which  they  detested.  Al- 
though such,  generally,  were  the  feelings  of  the  Spanish  colo- 
nists ;  yet  at  this  period,  and  before,  there  were  some  few  en- 
rightened  individuals  in  the  different  settlements,  who  enter- 
tained higher  views  and  hopes  ;  who  wished  to  avail  themselves 
of  the  present  juncture  to  restore  their  country  to  its  natural 
rights,  of  which  it  had  been  deprived  for  three  hundred  years. 

The  illegal  regency  in  Spain,  being  encouraged  by  the  man- 
ifesto of  the  merchants  of  Cadiz,  addressed  a  proclamation  to 
the  colonies  in  America  ;  and  with  the  intention  of  conciliating 
them,  at  a  crisis  when  it  was  evident  Spain  could  do  nothing 
without  their  assistance,  the  proclamation  contains  sentiments 
not  less  true  than  remarkable,  as  emanating  from  such  a  source. 

"  Americans,  ye  have  been  long  weighed  down  by  a  yoke 
naore  oppressive  to  bear,  because  ye  were  distant  from  the 
centre  of  power.  We  now  place  your  future  destiny  in  your 
3wn  hands.  Ye  have  hitherto  been  the  football,  as  it  were,  of 
:he  viceroys,  always  subject  to  their  ambition  and  caprice, 
vvhile  at  the  same  time  ye  were  a  prey  to  their  cupidity.  From 
his  time  your  fate  shall  Hot  depend  on  them." 

The  regency,  also,  endeavoured  to  impress  on  the  Ameri 
cans,  that  Spain  and  her  colonies  were  to  share  the  same  fate, 
whatever  it  might  be.  "  It  is  not  sufficient,"  they  observe, 

VOL.  II.  22 


12  HISTORY   OF  THE 

"for  you  to  be  Spaniards,  unless,  whatever  be  the  event  of 
fortune,  you  also  belong  to  Spain." 

The  news  of  the  disastrous  events  in  the  Spanish  Peninsula, 
and  the  proclamation  of  the  regency,  reached  Caraccas  in  the 
year  1810,  and  occasioned  great  alarm.  The  struggle  in 
Spain  was  believed  to  be  nearly  at  an  end,  and  the  final  tri- 
umph of  Bonaparte  certain.  At  such  a  conjuncture,  the  in- 
habitants felt  it  to  be  their  duty  and  their  right  to  provide  for 
their  own  security  ;  the  legitimate  government  of  the  mother 
country  being  annihilated,  and  the  colonies  exposed  to  fall 
into  the  hands  of  a  foreign  power.  They  felt  the  more  con- 
firmed in  this  course,  as  they  had  no  longer  any  reason  to 
doubt  that  it  was  the  design  of  the  Spanish  chiefs  at  home,  and 
of  all  the  colonial  officers  in  America,  who  were  determined  to 
yield  obedience  to  every  species  of  government  established  in 
the  Peninsula,  however  illegal,  that  the  colonies  should  fall 
under  the  dominion  of  Bonaparte  in  case  he  conquered  Spain. 
We  have  seen  that  the  colonial  chiefs  were  willing  to  sacrifice 
their  king,  and  recognize  the  power  of  Joseph  Bonaparte,  as 
sovereign  of  Spain  ;  and  after  the  insurrection  in  the  Peninsu- 
la, they  had  evinced  a  readiness  to  acknowledge  the  authority 
of  any  self-created  tribunal  in  Spain,  however  palpably  illegal, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  resist  every  attempt  of  the  colonists 
to  establish  any  provisional  tribunal,  which  might  preserve  the 
country  from  anarchy  in  case  of  the  subjugation  of  the  parent 
country.  The  prime  object  of  the  colonial  rulers  was  to  keep 
the  colonies  in  a  state  of  dependence  on  some  power  in  Europe  i 
and  they  seemed  hardly  to  care  where  or  what  it  was.  And  it 
ife  not  difficult  to  discover  the  motives  of  this  conduct ;  as  long 
as  America  could  be  kept  in  a  state  of  dependence,  the  colo- 
nial rulers  supposed  a  readiness  to  acknowledge  any  authority 
which  claimed  dominion  over  Spain,  and  consequently  over 
America,  was  the  most  sure  way  of  preserving  their  station. 
They  wished  to  keep  America  dependent,  not  so  much  from  a 
regard  to  the  interests  of  Spain,  as  to  preserve  their  own  pow- 
er ;  being  very  sensible  that  they  could  have  no  part  in  any 
government  constituted  by  the  people.  Hence  the  violence 
with  which  they  pursued  the  American  patriots  ;  every  act, 
every  movement  tending  towards  the  independence  of  the  colo- 
nies, although  temporary,  and  with  entire  and  express  recog- 
nition of  Ferdinand  VII.  was  regarded  as  a  blow  aimed  at 
their  own  power.  This  is  the  cause  of  the  fury  with  which 
they  pursued  the  first  patriots  in  the  colonies,  and  the  zeal 
they  pretended  to  feel  for  their  country,  was  stimulated  by  an 
apprehension  of  losing  their  own  power,  a  passion  of  all  oth- 
ers the  most  violent  and  vindictive. 


REVOLUTION  IN  COLOMBIA.  43 

The  inhabitants  of  Caraccas  were  well  acquainted  with  the 
opinions  and  feelings  of  the  captain-general  of  the  province, 
and  aware  that  he  intended,  at  all  events,  to  keep  them  in 
a  state  of  dependence  ;  and  considering  that,  as  the  legiti- 
mate government  in  Spain  was  at  an  end,  the  powers  of  govern- 
ment during  this  suspension  of  authority  in  the  parent  state, 
had  reverted  to  the  people  :  and  that  in  the  language  of  their 
brethren  in  the  north,  in  their  solemn  declaration  to  the  world, 
it  consequently  had  become  a  right  and  a  duty  to  "  provide 
new  guards  for  their  own  security."  By  the  almost  unani- 
mous voice  of  the  people,  the  Spanish  colonial  officers  were 
deposed,  and  the  cabildo,  or  municipal  body,  together  with 
several  other  persons,  designated  by  the  people,  were  vested 
with  the  powers  of  government,  and  styled  a  Junta  Suprema. 
The  junta,  however,  acted  in  the  name  of  Ferdinand  VII.  ; 
and  although  they  disallowed  the  authority  of  the  regency  at 
Cadiz,  they  offered  to  afford  all  the  aid  in  their  power  towards 
the  prosecution  of  the  war  against  France. 

1  he  influence  which  the  condition  of  Spain  had  on  the  col- 
onies, the  measures  that  the  Americans  had  adopted,  and  the 
violence  with  which  they  had  been  opposed  by  the  Spanish 
rulers,  both  in  Spain  and  the  colonies,  had  greatly  increased 
the  jealousy  and  unfriendly  feelings  between  the  Creoles  or 
native  Americans,  and  the  European  Spaniards  in  America. 
In  July,  1810,  an  affray  occurred  at  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota,  which 
originated  from  a  European  Spaniard,  insulting  a  native  Amer- 
ican, and  including  in  the  opprobrious  and  reproachful  lan- 
guage which  he  applied  to  him,  all  his  countrymen.  The 
quarrel  between  two  individuals  soon  assumed  a  serious  as- 
pect ;  the  citizens  collecting  to  the  scene  of  contention,  the 
Spaniards  joining  on  the  side  of  their  countrymen,  and  the 
Creoles  taking  part  with  theirs,  a  contest  ensued,  in  which  the 
latter,  being  the  most  numerous,  were  triumphant. 

Under  the  influence  of  the  excitement,  which  this  popular 
contest  had  occasioned,  a  meeting  of  the  inhabitants  was  con- 
vened, and  a  junta  established.  In  Chile  the  captain-general 
exasperated  the  people  to  such  a  degree,  that  he  was  obliged 
to  resign  his  office,  and  a  junta  was  formed  in  September ; 
and  in  Mexico  an  insurrection  broke  out  the  same  month  in 
consequence  of  the  violent  measures  of  Venegas,  the  new 
viceroy. 

Accounts  of  these  proceedings  in  the  colonies,  were  sent  to 
Spain,  by  the  colonial  governors,  with  all  the  exaggeration 
which  their  exasperated  feelings  were  calculated  to  give  to 
them  ;  and  their  effect  on  the  regency  must  have  gratified  their 
most  violent  resentments.  The  official  despatches  ©f  the 


14  HISTORY    OF   THE 

junta  of  Caraccas,  containing  the  reasons  which  had  induced 
the  people  to  take  the  course  they  had,  the  nature  of  the  pow- 
er assumed,  and  that,  although  they  could  not  submit  to  the 
authority  of  the  regency,  they  recognised  the  supremacy  oi' 
Ferdinand,  had  no  influence  on  the  unstable  and  violent, 
councils  of  a  distracted  state.*  The  regency  of  Spain,  ille- 
gal and  impotent  as  it  was,  with  that  rashness  and  violence 
which  oppugnation  to  illegal  power,  usually  occasions,  im- 
mediately declared  Caraccas  in  a  state  of  blockade.  This 
decree  was  published  on  the  31st  of  August,  1810,  and  its 
importance,  as  well  as  to  exhibit  its  spirit,  requires  its  inser- 
tion here  : — 

"  Scarcely  had  the  council  of  regency  received  intelligence 
of  the  occurrences  at  Caraccas,  whose  inhabitants,  instigated 
ho  doubt  by  some  intriguing  and  factious  persons,  were  guilty 
of  declaring  themselves  independent  of  the  mother  country,  and 
of  forming  a  governing  junta  to  exercise  this  supposed  independ- 
ent authority,  when  it  determined  to  take  the  most  active  and 
efficacious  means  to  attack  the  evil  in  its  origin,  and  prevent  its 
progress.  But,  in  order  to  proceed  with  mature  deliberation, 
the  regency  consulted  the  council  of  Spain  and  the  Indies,  and 
has  taken  such  measures  as  will  answer  the  end  proposed, 
particularly  as  neither  the  province  of  Maracaibo,  nor  the  de- 
partment of  Coro,  have  taken  part  in  the  criminal  proceedings  : 
but,  on  the  contrary,  have  acknowledged  the  council  of  regency ; 
and  taken  the  most  efficacious  measures  to  oppose  the  absurd  idea 
~yCd7ZCZZ"  dzdaring  herself  independent,  without  being  possess- 
ed of  the  means  of  obtaining  this  independence  !  The  regency 
hereby  declares  the  province  of  Caraccas  in  a  state  of  rigorous 
blockade,"  &c.  "  These  resolutions  do  not  extend  to  the 
above-mentioned  divisions,  which,  having  refused  to  follow 
the  pernicious  example  of  Caraccas,  have  manifested  their 
constant  fidelity  by  opposing  the  plan  of  rebellion,  which  only 
originated  in  the  unlimited  ambition  of  some  persons,  and  in 
the  blind  credulity  of  others,  who  suffered^  themselves  to  be 
hurried  away  by  the  ardent  passions  of  their  fellow  countrymen. 
The  regency  has  taken  the  most  secure  measures  to  extirpate 
these  evils,  and  to  punish  the  authors  of  them  with  all  the 
rigour  which  the  rights  of  sovereignty  authorize  it  to  use,  un- 
less there  be  a  previous  and  voluntary  submission,  in  which 
case  the  regency  grants  them  a  general  pardon.  The  regen- 
cy commands  that  these  resolutions  be  circulated  through  all 
the  Spanish  dominions,  that  they  may  be  carried  into  effect 
there  as  well  as  in  foreign  countries,  and  that  they  may  act 

*  Walton's  Expose  to  the  King  of  England. 


REVOLUTION  IN  COLOMBIA,  45 

conformably  to  the  measures  taken  for  the  blockade  of  the 
said  coasts,"  &c. 

If  the  causes  which  led  to  the  revolution,  in  the  British  col- 
onies in  America,  were  unlike  those  which  occasioned  the 
first  movements  of  that,  in  the  Spanish  colonies,  the  conduct 
of  the  two  parent  governments,  occasioned  by  the  first  pro- 
ceedings of  the  colonies,  were  very  similar,  and  proceeded 
from  the  same  feelings.  The  blockade  of  Caraccas,  is  a 
measure  that  compares  very  well  with  the  Boston  Port  Bill, 
and  other  acts  of  Parliament,  which  instantly  followed  the 
news  of  the  destruction  of  the  tea  ;  and  although,  perhaps, 
more  violent,  it  was  dictated  by  the  same  spirit,  and  justified 
on  the  same, principles. 

This  decree  of  the  regency  was  a  declaration  of  war,  and 
its  authors,  without  inquiring  into  the  causes  which  occasioned 
the  measures  pursued  in  the  colonies,  or  making  a  single  ef- 
fort for  conciliation,  rashly  plunged  the  two  countries  into  all 
the  horrors  of  civil  war.  The  answer  of  the  junta  of  Carac- 
cas, to  the  Marquis  de  las  Hermazas,  minister  in  Spain,  con- 
taining an  expose  of  the  reasons,  which  occasioned  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  junta,  and  justifying  the  measure,  instead  of 
tending  to  allay  the  feelings  of  the  regency,  and  the  people  of 
Spain,  greatly  inflamed  them  ;  and  the  intelligence,  that  other 
colonies  were  following  the  examples  of  Caraccas,  excited 
their  resentment  to  the  highest  pitch.  The  Cortes  had  been 
convened,  and  both  the  government  and  the  people  seemed 
ripe  for  war,  and  thirsting  for  vengeance.  The  severest  in« 
vectives,  reproaches,  and  sarcasms,  against  the  Americans, 
were  published  in  the  Cadiz  newspapers  ;  and  the  most  vio- 
lent measures  were  adopted,  not  only  calculated,  but  intend- 
ed,  to  enkindle  the  flames  of  civil  war  in  America,  and  thus 
either  coerce  her  into  an  acknowledgement  of  the  authority  of 
Spain,  whatever  it  might  be,  or  make  her  destroy  herself.  A- 
gents  or  emissaries  were  sent  to  Puerto  Rico,  Montevideo, 
Panama,  and  Mexico,  for  the  purpose  of  arousing  political  and 
religious  prejudices  in  favour  of  Spain,  and  against  the  new 
governments  in  America,  and  by  making  promises  to  some, 
and  threatening  others,  to  produce  dissentions  among  the  pat- 
riots, and  thus  destroy  the  new  governments  in  the  bud.  But 
the  principal  reliance  of  the  rulers  of  Spain  was  on  the  sword, 
and  consequently,  troops  were  sent  to  Montevideo,  Vera  Cruz, 
Coro,  Santa  Martha,  and  Panama,  with  a  view  to  dragoon  the 
Americans  into  submission  ;  although  at  this  time,  every  sol- 
dier was  wanted  at  home  for  the  defence  of  the  country.  The 
rage  however,  which  prevailed  against  the  invaders  of  their 
country,  violent  as  it  was,  did  npt  equal  that  tawatds  the 
22* 


46  HISTORY   OP   THE 

rebellious  Americans.  The  animosity  of  the  Cortes,  againsf 
the  colonists,  corresponded  with  the  feelings  of  the  regency  : 
and  although  some  Americans,  who  happened  at  the  time  to 
be  in  the  Isle  of  Leon,  were  chosen  members  of  the  Cortes, 
so  strong  were  the  feelings  of  that  body,  they  scarcely  daied 
to  speak  in  favour  of  their  countrymen. 

Such  was  the  spirit  which  animated  the  councils  of  Spain, 
and  dictated  the  measures  they  adopted  towards  America  ; 
and  their  agents  and  officers  in  the  colonies,  exasperated  by 
the  loss  of  power,  or  alarmed  from  an  apprehension  of  it,  were 
fit  instruments  to  execute  measures  of  vengeance,  to  scatter 
the  fire  brands  of  civil  dissentions,  and  carry  on  a  vindictive 
and  sanguinary  war,  the  object  of  which  was,  either  to  subju- 
gate the  rebellious  Americans,  or  to  exterminate  them. — 
Those  who  possess  supreme  power,  however  acquired,  regard 
the  invasion  of  it  as  the  greatest  of  all  crimes.  The  patriots 
of  America  were  denounced  as  rebels  and  traitors,  and  the 
vengeance  of  the  state,  and  the  anathemas  of  the  church,  di- 
rected against  them.  That  a  contest  commenced  under  such 
auspices  should  have  become  a  war  of  extermination,,  and  in 
its  progress  have  exhibited  horrid  scenes  of  cruelty,  desola- 
tion and  deliberate  bloodshed  ;  that  all  offers  of  accommoda- 
tion should  be  repelled  with  insult  or  outrage  ;  capitulations 
violated,  public  faith  disregarded,  prisoners  of  war  cruelly 
massacred,  and  the  inhabitants  persecuted,  imprisoned,  and 
put  to  death,  cannot  occasion  surprise.  As  violence  and  cru- 
elty produce  the  bitter  spirit  of  recrimination  and  revenge,  the 
outrages  of  the  Spaniards  exasperated  the  Americans,  and  led 
to  retaliation,  which  rendered  the  contest  a  war  of  death,  as  it 
was  ofteia  called,  characterised  by  a  ferocious  and  savage  spir- 
it, scarcely  surpassed  by  that  of  the  Cortes  and  Pizarros,  who 
first  desolated  this  fair  portion  of  the  earth,  and  drenched  its 
mountains  and  plains  with  the  blood  of  its  innocent  inhabit- 
ants. The  events  of  the  ^evolutionary  struggle,  which  we  have 
now  commenced  narrating,  will  fully  justify  us  in  what  we  have 
asserted  as  to  the  spirit  and  conduct  of  the  Spanish  chiefs  and 
rulers  ;  in  charging  them  with  the  first  disregard  of  the  laws 
of  war  among  civilized  nations,  and  the  first  outrages  agaiast 
the  rights  of  humanity.  The  violent  measures  of  the  Spanish 
rulers,  and  the  furious  and  cruel  conduct  of  their  agents  in 
America,  towards  the  patriots,  produced  an  effect  directly 
contrary  from  what  was  expected ;  but  nevertheless,  what 
was  natural,  and  would  have  been  foreseen,  had  they  taken 
counsel  from  their  understandings,  instead  of  their  mortified 
pride  and  exasperated  feelings.  The  high-toned  measures, 
enforced  with  rigour  and  cruelty,  which  it  was  expected  would 


REVOLUTION    IN   COLOMBIA.  4 

have  intimidated  the  patriots,  and  stifled  the  spirit  of  indepen- 
dence, only  served,  like  violent  winds,  acting  on  half  extin- 
guished coals,  to  enliven  its  latent  sparks,  and  blow  them  into 
a  flame.  The  authority  of  a  state  over  its  colonies,  especial- 
ly when  at  a  great  distance,  cannot  long  be  supported  on  any 
ojher  basis  than  that  of  mutual  affection  and  attachment  be- 
tween the  inhabitants  of  the  two  countries.  Spain,  notwith- 
standing the  example  of  Great  Britain,  from  which  she  might 
have  profited,  seems  to  have  entirely  disregarded  this  maxim  ; 
and  instead  of  attempting  to  allay  the  spirit  of  disaffection, 
which  disclosed  itself,  and  restore  the  mutual  attachments  and 
confidence  between  the  two  countries,  by  injustice  and  cruel- 
ty, alienated  the  affections  of  the  colonists  from  the  parent 
country  ;  dissolved  the  ties  of  fraternity,  and  enkindled,  from 
a  few  sparks,  a  revolutionary  flame,  which  spread  through  all 
her  dominions.  In  consequence  of  the  tyrannical  and  perse- 
cuting conduct  of  the  Spanish  rulers  at  home  and  in  America, 
so  wide  had  the  disaffection  spread,  and  to  such  a  degree  were 
the  people  alienated  from  Spain,  and  irritated  against  their  op- 
pressors, that  in  one  year  they  became  ripe  for  a  revolution, 
and  prepared  to  assume  the  responsibility  of  taking  the  reins 
of  government  into  their  own  hands  ;  of  declaring  to  the 
world  "that  they  were,  and  of  right  ought  to  be,  free,  sove- 
reign and  independent,"  at  the  hazard  of  their  lives  and  for- 
tunes. 

Caraccastook  the  lead,  and  a  congress  of  the  several  provin- 
ces in  Venezuela  was  convened,  which  on  tke  5th  of  July, 
1811,  in  imitation  of  the  American  Congress,  just  thirty-five 
years  before,  published  a  declaration  of  independence  ;  con- 
taining the  reasons  which  impelled  them  to  the  separation,  and 
pledging  their  lives,  fortunes,  and  the  sacred  tie  of  national 
honour,  to  maintain  it. 

The  noble  example  of  Venezuela  was  followed  by  Cartha- 
gena,  Socorro,  Tunja,  Pamplona,  Antioquia,  and  the  other 
provinces  forming  the  confederation  of  New  Granada,  and  like- 
wise by  Mexico,  which  published  similar  declarations  ;  and  at 
a  later  period  Buenos  Ayres,  also,  promulged  a  declaration  of 
Independence. 

The  proceedings  in  America  opened  the  eyes  of  the  Cor- 
tes of  Spain  to  the  tendency  of  their  conduct,  and  perceiving 
that  they  were  driving  the  Americans  to  a  separation,  they  be- 
came alarmed,  and  had  recourse,  after  it  was  too  late,  to  con- 
ciliating measures.  The  members  of  the  Cortes,  who  belong- 
ed to  America,  had  submitted  a  plan  for  the  accommodation 
of  the  differences  existing  between  Spain  and  her  colonies* 
but  the  Cortes  had  refused  even  to  consider  it  $  yet  in  Januar* 


48  HISTORY  OP  THE 

ry,  1811,  their  project,  containing  eleven  propositions,  was  dis- 
cussed ;  and,  notwithstanding  the  apprehensions  of  the  Cor 
tes,  arising  from  the  movements  in  America,  they  remained 
not  only  deaf  to  the  calls  of  justice,  but  insensible  to  the  dic- 
tates of  expediency.  The  project  was  rejected,  three  propo- 
sitions only  being  approved  of.  As  these  propositions  reflect 
light  on  the  dispute  between  America  and  Spain1,  and  at  the 
same  time,  tend  to  show  the  restrictions  and  oppressions  un- 
der which  the  colonies  have  suffered  for  ages,  it  deserves  a 
place  in  the  history  of  the  revolution  which  separated  the  two 
countries. 

"  1st.  In  conformity  to  the  decree  of  the  central  junta,  da- 
ted the  15th  of  October,  1809,  which  declared  the  inhabitants 
of  Spanish  America  equal  in  rights  to  those  of  the  peninsula, 
the  national  representation  of  every  part  of  Spanish  America , 
the  Spanish  West  Indies,  and  the  Phillipine  Islands,  including 
every  class  of  their  inhabitants,  shall  be  the  same  in  form, 
manner,  and  without  distinction,  as  in  the  kingdom  and  islands 
of  European  Spain. 

"  2dly.  1  he  free  natives  and  inhabitants  of  Spanish  Ameri- 
ca shall  be  allowed  to  plant  and  cultivate  whatever  their  cli- 
mate will  produce  ;  with  license  to  encourage  industry,  and 
to  promote  manufactures  and  arts  in  their  fullest  extent. 

"3dly.  Spanish  America  shall  enjoy  the  liberty  of  export- 
ing her  own  natural  and  manufactured  productions  to  the  pe- 
ninsula, as  well  as  to  the  allies,  and  to  neutral  nations  ;  and  of 
importing  whatever  she  may  want.  All  her  ports  are  conse- 
quently to  be  opened."  This  and  the  preceding  demand  were 
agreed  to,  but  the  order  to  carry  them  into  execution  was 
never  published. 

"  4thly.  There  shall  be  a  free  trade  between  Spanish 
America  and  the  Spanish  settlements  in  Asia.  Every  thing 
militating  against  this  freedom  to  be  abolished. 

"  5thly.  Freedom  of  trade  to  be  granted  from  all  the  ports 
in  Spanish  America  and  the  Philippine  Islands  to  other  parts 
of  Asia.  Any  law  existing  contrary  to  such  freedom  to  be 
annulled. 

"  6thly.  All  estancos  or  monopolies  in  favour  of  the  public 
treasury,  or  of  the  king,  shall  be  suppressed ;  but  the  public 
treasury  shall  be  indemnified  for  the  loss  of  profit  arising  from 
such  monopoly,  by  new  duties  on  the  same  articles. 

'•  7thly.  The  working  of  the  quicksilver  mines  shall  be  free 
in  Spanish  America,  but  the  administration  of  the  produce 
shall  remain  in  charge  of  the  officers  of  the  minery  department* 
independent  of  the  viceroys  and  captain-general,  and  officers 
-of  4he  red  hacienda"  This  was  granted,  and  orders 


REVOLUTION    IN   COLOMBIA.  49 

published  for  carrying  it  into  execution  in  the  provinces  under 
the  Spaniards. 

"  Sthly.  All  Spanish  Americans  shall  be  eligible  equally 
with  Spaniards  to  all  appointments  of  rank  or  emolument, 
whether  at  court  or  in  any  part  of  the  monarchy,  either  in  po- 
litical, military,  or  ecclesiastical  departments. 

"  9thly.  Consulting  the  natural  protection  of  each  kingdom 
in  Spanish  America,  half  of  the  public  appointments  shall  be 
filled  by  Spanish  subjects  born  in  America. ._ 

"  lOthly.  That  the  above  stipulations  may  be  punctually 
adhered  to,  a  consultive  junta  shall  be  formed  in  each  capital, 
to  the  intent  that  it  may  propose  persons  suited  to  fill  each  va- 
cancy. 

It  is  curious  to  notice  the  fluctuating  policy  of  both  France 
and  England,  as  to  the  dispute  betw<  en  Spain  and  her  colo- 
nies. After  the  occurrences  at  Bayonne,  France  attempted 
to  acquire  dominion  over  America  as  ap  appendage  of  Spain, 
and  wished  to  maintain  the  dependence  of  the  former  on  the 
latter.  But  they  soon  became  satisfied,  from  the  extreme  re- 
pugnance manifested  by  the  Americans  to  their  dominion,  that 
whatever  might  be  the  event  of  the  war  as  to  old  Spain,  the 
colonies  would  never  acknowledge  or  submit  to  the  sway  of 
France.  The  Bonapartes,  therefore,  changed  their  views, 
and  became  the  abettors  of  the  independence  of  America,  for 
the  purpose  of  cutting  off  from  Spain  the  pecuniary  resources 
she  derived  from  her  colonies,  as  well  as  to  weaken  her  by  in- 
yolving  her  in  a  civil  war.  Thus,  whilst  all  the  different  gov- 
ernments in  the  Spanish  peninsula,  maintaining  the  rights  of 
Ferdinand,  were  opposing  the  independence  of  America,  Jo- 
seph Bonaparte,  claiming  the  throne  of  Spain,  against  whose 
sovereignty  the  Americans  had  shown  so  much  hostility,  was 
attempting  to  promote  it.  He  despatched  agents  to  America 
for  the  purpose  of  exciting  and  encouraging  the  revolution 
there  ;  giving  them  full  and  minute  instructions,  embracing 
even  the  motto  to  be  inscribed  on  the  revolutionary  banners, 
which  was,  "  Long  live  the  catholic,  apostolic,  and  Roman 
religion,  and  perish  the  bad  government."  These  instructions 
were  given  to  M.  Desmolard,  of  Baltimore,  who  was  the  prin- 
cipal agent  of  Joseph  Bonaparte,  and  to  other  emissaries  sent 
i  nto  the  colonies.  A  copy  of  these  instructions  was  found  in. 
Caraccas  in  the  office  of  the  secretary  of  the  junta,  and  for- 
warded to  the  admiral  of  the  Barbadoes  station,  as  a  caution, 
against  the  intrigues  of  the  Bonapartes.*  The  French  agents 
penetrated  into  different  parts  of  the  American  settlements, 
and  one  of  them  was  discovered  in  the  town  of  Habana,  and 
shot. 

*  See  Outline  of  the  Revolution,  p.  55, 


50  HISTORY    OF    1?HE 

The  court  of  St.  James,  in  1797,  openly  encouraged  a  rev 
olution  in  Venezuela,  as  appears  by  the  proclamation  of  the 
governor  of  Trinidad,  which  we  have  copied  in  this  work. — 
Spain  then  being  an  ally  of  France,  and  her  resources  wasted 
by  Napoleon,  in  supporting  his  wars  against  England  and  her 
allies,  the  British  ministry  wished  to  separate  her  colonies  from 
Spain,  to  deprive  her  of  the  supplies  she  received  from  them, 
and   also  to  secure  to  Great- Britain  a  lucrative   trade  with 
America.     But  after  the  general  rising  in  Spain,  against  Bona- 
parte, the  tables  were  turned,  and  the  Spaniards,  from  being 
the  enemies  of  Great-Britain,  became  her  friends  and  allies. 
Feeling  interested  in  the  success  of  the  war  prosecuting  in 
the  Spanish  peninsula,  against  France,  Great-Britain  became 
the  mediator  between  Spain  and  her  colonies,  and  in  June, 
1810,  Lord  Liverpool  wrote  to  general  Layard,  governor   of 
Curracoa,  "  That  his  Britannic  majesty  had  strong  reasons  for 
hoping  that  the  inhabitants  of  Caraccas  would  acknowledge 
the  authority  of  the  regency  of  Spain."     The  governor   sent 
copies  of  this  letter  to  the  government  at  Caraccas,  and  also 
to  the  regency  at  Cadiz,  in  both  of  which  places  it  was  pub- 
lished ;  and  soon  after  colonel  Robertson,  the  secretary  of  the 
governor  of  Curracoa,  arrived  at  Caraccas,  with  the  evident 
design  of  promoting  the  wish  of  the  British  cabinet ;  but  per- 
ceiving how  universal  the  disaffection  of  the  inhabitants  was 
towards  the  regency  of  Spain,  he  did  not  communicate  the 
object  of  his  mission.     Not  discouraged,  however,  in  her  ef- 
forts to  restore  harmony  between  Spain  and   her   Colonies,  in 
April,  1811,  Great-Britain  offered  her  mediation,*  which  was 
accepted  by  the  Cortes,  on  certain  conditions  ;  among  which, 
the  principal  were,  that  the  revolted  provinces  should  swear 
allegiance  to  the  Cortes  and  regency  ;  and  in  case  the  Ameri- 
cans should  not  accede  to  the  terms  proposed,  that  the  British 
government  should  engage  to  assist  Spain  to  subdue  them  by 
force.     Unreasonable  as  these  terms  were,  the  British  govern- 
ment appointed  commissioners  ;  but  probably  from  an  expecta- 
tion that  the  Cortes  might  be  induced  to  accede  to  more  liberal 
terms  of  accommodation.     In  1812,  the  British  government 
submitted  to  the  Cortes  the  following  propositions,  as  the  basis 
on  whicn  they  would  undertake  the  mediation : 

"  1st.  That  there  should  be  a  cessation  of  hostilities  between 
Spain  and  Spanish  America. 

"  2dly.  An  amnesty  shall  be  granted,  and  perfect  oblivion 
of  all  acts,  or  even  opinions  that  may  have  been  expressed,  by 
the  Spanish  Americans  against  the  Spaniards  or  their  govern- 
ment 

"  3dly.  That  the  Cortes  shall  confirm  and  enforce  all  the 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA*  51 

rights  of  the  Spanish  Americans,  and  that  they  shall  be  allow- 
ed justly  and  liberally  their  representatives  in  the  Cortes. 

"  4thly.  That  Spanish  America  should  be  permitted  per- 
fect freedom  for  commerce,  though  some  degree  of  preference 
may  be  allowed  to  Spain. 

"  5thly.  That  the  appointments  of  viceroys,  governors,  &c, 
shall  be  given  Indiscriminately  to  South  Americans  and  Span- 
iards. 

"  6thly.  That  the  interior  government,  and  every  branch  of 
public  administration,  shall  be  intrusted  to  the  cabildo,  or  mu- 
nicipalities, who  shall  act  in  conjunction  with  the  chief  of  the 
provinces  ;  and  that  the  members  of  the  cabildo  shall  be  ei- 
ther South  Americans  or  Spaniards,  possessing  property  in  the 
respective  provinces. 

"  Tthly.  That  Spanish  America  shall  swear  allegiance  to 
Ferdinand  VII.  as  soon  as  she  is  put  in  possession  of  her  rights, 
and  has  sent  deputies  to  the  Cortes. 

"  8thly.  That  Spanish  America  shall  acknowledge  the 
sovereignty  possessed  by  the  Cortes,  as  representing  Ferdi- 
nand VII. 

"  9thly.  That  Spanish  America  shall  pledge  herself  to  main- 
tain a  mutual  and  friendly  intercourse  with  the  peninsula. 

"  lOthly.  That  Spanish  America  shall  oblige  herself  to  co- 
operate with  the  Cortes  and  the  allies  of  Spain  to  preserve  the 
peninsula  from  the  power  of  France. 

These  proposals  occasioned  very  long  and  animated  debates 
in  the  Cortes,  in  secret  session,   and  were  finally  rejected, 
principally  on  the  grounds  that  the  Americans  had  not  solicit- 
ed the  mediation  of  England,   and   that  the  British  govern- 
ment had  sinister  views   in  offering  it.      That  to  secure   to 
themselves  the  commerce  df  the  colonies,    was  the  principal 
motive  which  prompted  the  interference  of  the  British,  there 
is  no  room  to  doubt.     During  the  same  period,   the  British 
minister  at  Cadiz  was  pressing  the  regency  hard  to  obtain  the 
privilege  of  opening  a  trade  with  their  trans-atlantic  dominions, 
and  in  April,  18 11,  the  subject  was  brought  before  the  Cortes, 
which  occasioned  much  excitement  among  the  merchants  of 
Cadiz,  and  the  papers  were  rilled  with  invectives  against  the  un- 
reasonable demands  and  sinister  friendship  of  England.    On  the 
24th  of  July,  the  board  of  trade  at  Cadiz  discussed  this  ques- 
tion, and  issued  a  protest  or  manifesto,  in  which  they  assert, 
"  That  the  Americans  had  not  required  the  establishment  of 
this  free  trade  ;  that  they  even  detested  it  as  prejudicial  to 
their  interest :  That  Spain  would  be  ruined,  made  the  tool  of 
foreigners,  and  that  her  merchants  and  manufactures  being 
destroyed,  she  would  herself  lose  all  freedom. :  That,  in  short, 


e)2  HISTORY    OF    THE 

this  commerce  would  be  subversive  of  religion,  order,  society^ 
and  morality."  This  reasoning  seems  to  have  convinced  the 
Cortes  ;  for  in  August  following,  the  demands  of  the  British 
were  formally  rejected. 

After  the  establishment  of  the  junta  at  Caraccas,  in  1810, 
Don  Telesford  Ore  a  was  sent  to  Washington  to  solicit  the 
friendship  of  the  only  republic  then  in  the  world  ;  and  which, 
it  was  hoped,  would  approve  of  the  stand  they  had  assumed, 
if  not  aid  them  in  sustaining  it.  It  could  hardly  have  been  ex- 
pected, that,  at  this  early  period,  the  government  of  the  Uni- 
ted States  would  compromit  the  peace  of  the  republic,  by  di- 
rectly or  indirectly  affording  aid  to  a  cause,  the  nature  and 
design  of  which  they  could  know  little  about,  and  the  issue  of 
which  was  so  uncertain.  But  from  the  very  commencement 
of  thejcontest — the  first  dawn  of  the  light  of  liberty  in  Spanish 
America,  the  people  of  the  United  States  sympathised  with 
their  brethren  of  the  south  in  their  political  afflictions,  and 
wished  them  success  in  the  glorious  cause  in  which  they  had 
embarked. 

About  the  same  time  the  Caraccas  junta  deputed  Don  Luis 
Lopez  Mendez,  and  Don  Simon  Bolivar,  a  name  that  has  since 
become  illustrious,  to  solicit  the  support  of  the  British  govern- 
ment ;  but  the  latter  declined  the  mission.  From  the  instruc- 
tions given  to  Sir  Thomas  Picton,  in  1797,  by  the  minister  of 
the  colonial  department,  wherein  the  British  government  open- 
ly attempted  to  induce  the  inhabitants  to  revolt,  and  pledged 
itself  to  afford  them  assistance,  the  Venezuelans  considered 
that  they  had  a  right  to  expect  the  countenance  and  succour 
of  the  British  government.  So  deeply  was  this  sentiment  im- 
pressed on  the  minds  of  the  inhabitants  of  Caraccas,  both 
Spaniards  and  Americans  in  1810,  that  it  had  great  influence  v 
on  the  revolutionary  movement  which  took  place  at  that  time. 
But  the  war  which  broke  out  in  the  Spanish  peninsula,  against 
Bonaparte,  as  has  before  been  remarked,  changed  the  policy 
of  the  English  government ;  and  the  only  effect  the  agent  of 
the  junta  of  Caraccas  produced,  was  an  order  in  council,  di- 
recting the  governors  of  their  West  India  islands  to  maintain 
a  strict  neutrality  in  the  contest  between  Spain  and  her  colo- 
nies, so  long  as  the  latter  should  act  in  the  name  of  Ferdinand 
VII.  This  order  not  only  excluded  all  hope  of  assistance  from 
England,  but  seemed  to  imply,  that  if  the  patriots  should  de- 
clare themselves  independent  of  Ferdinand,  the  British  would 
take  a  part  against  them. 


REVOLUTION    IN  COLOMBIA,  53 


CHAPTER  III. 

Measures  of  the  junta  of  Caraccas — arrival  of  General  Miran- 
da— congress — plans  of  a  constitution — patriotic  society — con- 
spiracy — execution  of  conspirators — operations  at  Valencia — 
formation  oj  a  constitution — conspiracy  against  the  junta  of 
New  Granada — regency  attempt  to  conciliate  the  colonies — 
junta  of  Carthagena — congress  of  New  Granada — civil  dis- 
sentions — massacre  at  Quito — defeat  of  the  royalists  in  Popay- 
an — defeat  of  the  patriots. 

Iiif  the  preceding  chapter  we  have  examined  the  leading 
causes  of  the  revolution,  and  traced  its  events,  for  a  period  of 
two  years,  so  far  as  respects  the  relations  between  the  colo- 
nies and  Spain,  and  the  conduct  of  the  two  parties  towards  each 
other  ;  and  also  as  regards  the  intentions  and  policy  of  Eng- 
land and  France,  relative  to  the  revolution.  We  will  now 
look  into  the  interior  of  the  revolution,  view  the  political 
measures  of  the  new  governments,  and  proceed  to  enter  on  the 
distressing  details  of  the  dreadful  war,  which,  for  more  than 
twelve  years,  raged  with  the  greatest  fury  in  Colombia. 

The  junta  at  Caraccas,  organised  in  1810,  after  deposing 
the  Spanish  authorities,  of  which  the  captain-general  and 
members  of  the  audience  were  sent  to  the  United  States, 
adopted  several  popular  regulations  ;  they  abolished  the  trib- 
ute paid  by  the  Indians,  and  the  slave  trade,  and  removed  the 
restrictions  on  commerce  and  agriculture,  and  made  other  re- 
formations which  the  oppressed  condition  of  the  colony  requir- 
ed. These  decrees  being  published,  by  order  bf  the  junta,  in 
the  other  provinces  in  Venezuela,  all  of  them  except  Maracai- 
bo,  formed  juntas  in  imitation  of  that  of  Caraccas  ;  they  did 
not,  however,  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  that,  but  propo- 
sed a  general  congress  for  all  the  provinces  of  Venezuela. 
Soon  after  the  establishment  of  the  junta  in  Guiana,  the  Span- 
iards, gaining  the  ascendency,  it  declared  against  the  junta  of 
Caraccas,  and  in  favour  of  the  regency  of  Cadiz.  Don  Fer- 
nando Miyares,  governour  of  Maricaibo,  opposed  the  innova- 
tions at  Caraccas,  arrested  the  deputies  sent  there,  and  confin- 
ed them  in  the  dungeons  of  Puerto  Rico,  from  which,  after 
VOL.  II.  23 


54  HISTORY  OF    THE 

severe  suffering,  they  were  liberated  by  the  interference  of 
admiral  Cochrane. 

After  the  regency  of  Spain  declared  all  the  ports  belonging 
to  the  new  government  in  a  state  of  blockade,  it  despatched 
Don  N.  Cortavarria  as  cornmisioner,  clothed  with  absolute 
authority  to  reduce  the  rebellious  Venezuelans  to  uncondition- 
al submission,  if  they  did  not  listen  to  reason  and  return  to 
obedience.  He  exhorted  the  inhabitants  not  to  suffer  them- 
selves to  be  led  astray  by  designing  men,  but  to  abandon  their 
evil  counsels,  and,  like  dutiful  children,  return  to  the  arms  of 
the  best  of  parents.  He  promised  that  if  they  would  dissolve 
their  illegal  governments,  then  Spain  would  redress  their 
grievances.  His  proclamations  were  answered,  and  his  de- 
signs exposed,  in  the  papers  at  Caraccas,  which  induced  him 
to  have  recourse  to  secret  means  ;  and  emissaries  were  sent 
into  ail  parts  of  Venezuela,  to  work  on  the  prejudices  and 
fears  of  the  people,  and  produce  a  counter  revolution.  The 
prompt  resistance  of  the  governor  of  Maracaibo  to  the  revo- 
lutionary measures,  was  so  pleasing  to  the  regency  of  Cadiz, 
that  he  was  appointed  captain-general  of  Venezuela.  To 
guard  against  any  measures  of  opposition  which  he  might  pur- 
sue, and  to  watch  his  movements,  the  Caraccas  junta  sent  the 
Marquis  del  Toro  with  a  body  of  troops  to  Corora,  which  oc- 
casioned two  of  the  departments  of  the  province  of  Maracai- 
bo to  dissolve  their  connexion  with  that  province,  and  place 
themselves  under  the  protection  of  the  marquis,  and  the  junta 
of  the  province  of  Barinas.  Troops  were  sent  under  Don 
Diego  del  Toro,  and  don  Pedro  Brizeno  for  the  protection  of 
those  departments.  Agreeable  to  his  instructions,  the  Mar- 
quis del  Toro  opened  a  correspondence  with  Miyares,  the 
captain-general,  and  attempted  to  convince  him  of  the  neces- 
sity and  advantages  of  uniting  the  province  of  Maracaibo  with 
the  rest  of  Venezuela,  but  without /success. 

Believing  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  province  of  Maricaibo 
were  generally  disposed  to  join  their  brethren  of  the  other 
provinces  of  Venezuela,  several  attempts  at  insurrection  hav- 
ing been  made  in  the  town  of  Maracaibo,  and  alarmed  from  an 
apprehension  of  the  arrival  of  troops  from  Spain,  the  Marquis 
del  Toro  communicated  to  the  government  at  Caraccas  an 
opinion,  that  if  Coro,  one  of  the  departments  of  the  province 
of  Caraccas  which  held  out  against  the  new  government,  was 
attacked,  and  the  royal  party  subdued,  Maracaibo  would  join  in 
the  general  cause.  This  measure  being  approved  of  by  the 
junta,  the  Marquis  del  Toro  entered  the  department  of  Coro. 
in  November,  1810,  and,  at  first,  all  resistance  yielding  before 
him,  he  took  possession  of  the  capital,  of  the  same  name  as 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA.  55 

the  department. — From  the  town  of  Coro,  to  Carora,  from 
whence  the  army  had  marched,  is  a  distance  of  one  hundred 
and  twenty  miles  ;  the  country  is  uncultivated,  and  sandy,  and 
from  a  neglect  of  the  general  to  station  his  forces  so  as  to 
preserve  a  communication  with  Carora,  his  provisions  for  the 
army  failed  ;  and  being  disappointed  in  the  co-operation  of  the 
ships  of  war  which  sailed  from  Puerto  Cabello  for  that  pur- 
pose, in  consequence  of  the  weather,  the  Marquis  del  Toro 
was  compelled  to  retreat,  and  relinquish  the  object  of  the  ex- 
pedition. But  as  the  retreat  was  not  effected  without  difficul- 
ty and  hard  fighting,  something  was  gained  by  the  expedition, 
as  it  tended  to  increase  the  confidence  of  the  government  and 
and  the  people  in  the  army. 

At  the  close  of  the  year  1810,  general  Miranda  arrived  at 
Caraccas  from  England,  contrary  to  the  wishes  of  the  govern- 
ment, which  had  instructed  its  deputy  sent  to  London  to  op- 
pose his  return  to  his  native  country  at  present.  The  reason 
of  this  was,  the  junta  of  Caraccas  believed  that  the  return  of 
Miranda  to  Venezuela,  which  would  be  presumed  to  be  in 
pursuance  of  the  desire  of  the  government,  would  have  an  un- 
favourable influence  on  the  cause,  in  consequence  of  the  known 
revolutionary  designs  of  Miranda  and  his  repeated  attempts 
to  free  Venezuela  from  the  dominion  of  Spain.  As  the  os- 
tensible views  of  the  new  government  did  not  go  so  far  as  those 
of  general  Miranda,  they  could  not  consistently  invite  him 
into  the  country,  or  entrust  him  with  any  employment. 

The  general  congress  for  all  the  provinces  of  Venezuela, 
convened  for  its  first  session  on  the  2d  of  March,  1811,  and 
was  constituted  according  to  the  regulations  adopted  by  the 
supreme  junta  of  Caraccas  ;  which  provided  for  taking  a  cen- 
sus of  the  population,  for  forming  the  electoral  colleges ;  fixed 
the  ratio  of  representation  and  the  mode  of  election.  One 
representative  was  allowed  for  every  twenty  thousand  persons, 
and  about  fifty  deputies  were  elected  and  took  their  seats  in 
the  congress.  The  junta,  to  expedite  the  business  of  the  con- 
gress, had,  previous  to  their  meeting,  appointed  a  committee, 
consisting  of  Don  F.  X.  Ustariz,  Don  Fermin  Paul,  general 
Miranda,  Don  J.  Roscio  and  others,  to  frame  a  constitution, 
to  be  submitted  to  the  congress.  The  committee,  after  sev- 
eral conferences,  with  the  exception  of  Miranda,  united  in 
the  opinion  that  a  confederation  was.  the  best  form  of  govern- 
ment for  Venezuela.  General  Miranda's  opinion  was  widely 
different ;  he  laid  before  the  committee  a  plan  of  a  constitu- 
tion, the  same  he  had  intended  to  have  presented  to  the  people, 
had  he  succeeded  in  his  attempt  to  revolutionize  Terra  Firma 
in  1806,  It  was  designed  for  a  more  extensive  territory  than 


56  HISTORY   OP   THE 

Venezuela,  and  did  not  essentially  differ  from  the  Spanish  co* 
lonial  system.  Miranda,  who  had  been  received  at  first  with 
jealousy,  greatly  increased  the  fears  which  prevailed  of  his 
entertaining  ambitious  views,  by  his  constitutional  project* 
And  although  the  most  distinguished  advocates  of  independ- 
ence had  full  confidence  in  his  integrity,  and  highly  venerated 
his  talents  and  patriotism,  his  friends  could  not  obtain  an  elec- 
tion for  him  to  the  congress,  except  in  the  insignificant  depart- 
ment of  Araguita,  in  Barcelona.  As  is  usually  the  case  with 
a  state  just  emerged  from  oppression,  the  congress  disclosed 
much  jealousy,  and  experienced  much  difficulty  in  disposing  of 
the  executive  power.  At  length,  in  the  month  of  April,  they 
entrusted  it  to  three  persons,  named  by  the  congress,  but  so 
limited  and  restricted,  as  evinced  their  fears  of  its  subverting 
the  other  branches  of  the  government. 

The  congress  was  not  united,  even  on  the  main  question  ;. 
there  was  a  party  in  favour  of  a  re-union  with  Spain  ;  but  a 
decided  majority  were  advocates  for  independence,  and  the 
minority  were  afraid  to  declare  their  sentiments,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  enthusiasm  of  the  people  of  Caraccas  in  the 
revolutionary  cause.  General  Miranda,  sensible  that  intelli- 
gence was  all  that  was  necessary  to  increase  the  partizans  of 
the  revolution,  in  conjunction  with  Don  Francisco  Espejo,  a. 
distinguished  lawyer,  established  a  club,  called  the  patriotic 
society,  for  the  discussion  of  political  questions,  and  all  topics 
relating  to  the  general  welfare  of  the  state. 

The  19th  of  April,  the  anniversary  of  the  revolution,  was 
celebrated  by  the  inhabitants  of  Caraccas,  with  an  enthusiasm 
which  nothing  but  the  spirit  of  liberty  could  inspire.  After 
service  in  the  churches,  all  the  inhabitants  appeared  in  the 
streets,  richly  and  appropriately  dressed,  wearing  cockades  on 
their  hats,  composed  of  blue,  red,  and  yellow  ribbands.  The 
city  was  filled  with  rejoicing,  the  streets  were  lined  with 
crowds  of  all  classes,  with  countenances  beaming  with  joy  ; 
even  many  parties  of  Indians  collected  in  the  environs  of  the 
town,  and  by  dancing,  and  various  sports,  according  to  their 
customs,  evinced  that  three  hundred  years  of  slavery  and  op- 
pression had  not  extinguished  from  their  race  the  sacred  spark 
of  liberty,  or  rendered  them  insensible  to  its  blessings.  The 
patriotic  society  moved  in  procession  through  the  principal 
streets,  adorned  with  badges  of  liberty,  and  bearing  appropri- 
ate  ensigns.  At  night  the  scene  became  more  deeply  inter- 
esting and  sublime  ;  the  general  joy  seemed  to  increase  ;  the 
city  was  illuminated  throughout,  and  in  the  public  and  many  of 
the  private  buildings,  the  transparencies  displayed  with  good 
taste,  appropriate  and  patriotic  mottos  and  inscriptions.  Bands 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA  57 

of  music  paraded  the  streets,  which,  with  numerous  parties  of 
singers,  filled  the  air  with  melody  and  song,  which  tended  to 
diffuse  the  joyous  and  patriotic  feelings  that  universally  pre- 
vailed. 

But  the  congress  wanted  courage  and  energy  to  profit  from 
the  enthusiasm  of  the  people  ;  by  temporising  and  indecisive 
conduct,  the  confidence  of  the  inhabitants  in  the  government 
began  to  be  weakened,  and  their  enthusiasm  declined.  Sev- 
eral attempts  to  overthrow  the  government  were  detected,  and 
the  conspirators  were  only  banished  or  imprisoned.  In  June, 
1811,  a  most  alarming  plot  was  discovered,  just  as  it  was  on 
the  point  of  breaking  out.  This  convinced  the  government 
and  the  people,  that  it  was  necessary  to  adopt  more  decisive 
measures.  Their  condition,  however,  was  critical  and  em- 
barrassing ;  they  had  established  a  government,  disavowed 
the  existing  authorities  of  Spain,  and  by  these  steps  occa- 
sioned the  parent  country  to  make  war  upon  them,  although 
they  had  not  declared  themselves  independent.  They  had 
brought  on  their  country  the  evils  of  war,  and  were  exposed 
to  be  punished  as  rebels,  yet,  unless  they  declared  the  country 
independent  of  Spain,  they  had  no  object  in  view,  in  any  de- 
gree corresponding  with  such  sacrifices.  This  subject  was 
taken  up  and  discussed  in  the  patriotic  society,  and  the  pre- 
vailing opinion  seemed  to  be,  that  nothing  but  a  declaration 
of  entire  independence  could  save  the  country  from  ruin. 
Encouraged  by  these  favourable  sentiments  among  the  people, 
a  declaration  of  independence  was  proposed  in  the  congress, 
and  after  being  debated  at  great  length,  and  with  much  earn- 
estness, was  finally  adopted  on  the  5th  of  July,  1811.  The 
length  of  this  document  prevents  its  being  embodied  in  this 
work.  It  is  drawn  up  in  imitation  of  the  declaration  by  the 
North  American  congress,  and  may  be  found  in  the  outline 
of  the  Revolution,  page  45.  The  good  effects  of  the  meas- 
ure were  immediately  perceived  ;  it  gave  energy  to  the  gov- 
ernment, and  the  principal  of  the  conspirators  were  arrested. 
Their  plan  was  to  have  secured  the  main  barrack,  by  means 
of  the  treachery  of  a  Spanish  sergeant  in  the  employ  of  the 
new  government,  which  would  have  supplied  them  with  am- 
munition and  arms,  and  then  to  have  attacked  the  town,  in 
which  several  hundred  of  the  conspirators  were  concealed, 
who  would  have  joined  in  the  assault  the  moment  the  first 
cannon  was  fired  from  the  barracks.  If  it  had  succeeded,  the 
three  members  of  the  executive,  and  the  leading  members  of 
congress,  were  to  have  been  instantly  executed,  and  the  re- 
maining members  sent  to  Spain.  Notwithstanding  the  arrest 
of  the  leaders,  the  conspirators  began  to  assemble  at  about 


58  HISTORY    OF    THE 

three  o'clock  in  the  morning  on  the  llth  of  July,  in  that  part 
of  the  city  called  Las-tegues  ;  but  the  people  who  were  ap- 
prised of  the  danger,  were  prepared  to  meet  them,  and  after 
some  resistance  they  were  captured  and  thrown  into  prison. 
The  day  preceding  this  event,  an  insurrection  broke  out  at  Va- 
encia,  situated  in  the  interior,  more  than  one  hundred  miles 
from  Garaccas. — The  Spaniards  residing  in  the  town  surprised 
and  took  possession  of  the  barracks,  garrisoned  by  a  few  sol- 
diers, and  were  joioed  by  many  of  the  other  inhabitants 
who  were  disaffected  with  the  congress  in  consequence 
of  its  having  opposed  their  plan  of  separating  themselves 
from  Caraccas,  and  forming  a  new  province.  Arms  had  been 
privately  introduced  into  the  town  by  the  Spaniards,  which, 
being  put  into  the  hands  of  the  insurgents,  they  prepared  to 
defend  the  town  against  the  government. 

The  appearance  of  a  new  and  unexpected  enemy,  the  off- 
spring of  disaffection,  greatly  embarrassed  and  perplexed  th'e 
government  ;  they  knew  not  how  far  the  disaffection  extend- 
ed, or  hardly  who  to  trust ;  and  the  conspirators  arrested, 
refused  to  disclose  their  accomplices,  from  an  expectation 
that  their  numbers  were  such,  that  with  the  assistance  of 
the  Spanish  troops  they  should  prevail,  by  which  means 
they  would  be  released.  It  was  thought  expedient  to  crush 
the  insurrection  in  the  germ,  and  immediately  to  attack 
the  conspirators  at  Valencia  ;  but  the  troops  were  required 
at  Caraccas,  for  the  protection  of  the  town  and  the  govern- 
ment. In  this  dilemma,  the  government  appealed  to  the  in- 
habitants, and  a  sufficient  number  turned  out  in  arms  for  the 
defence  of  the  place.  General  Toro  was  then  sent  against 
Valencia.  In  the  meantime,  ten  of  the  conspirators  were 
were  tried,  condemned  and  executed  ;  and  what  is  more 
shocking,  and  tends  to  prove  that  the  revolution  had  not  done 
away  the  inhuman  and  barbarous  spirit  of  the  inhabitants,  their 
heads  were  placed  on  poles,  at  the  entrance  of  the  city,  in 
pursuance  of  their  sentence.  "Distrusting  the  military  talents 
of  the  Marquis  del  Toro,  the  congress  ordered  general  Miran- 
da to  take  command  of  the  arrny  sent  against  Valencia.  The 
insurgents  had  fortifiied  two  hills  near  the  town,  which  com- 
manded the  road  leading  into  it  ;  one  of  which  had  been  at- 
tacked and  carried  by  general  Toro,  before  the  arrival  of  Mi- 
randa ,  but  with  a  very  heavy  loss  to  the  patriots.  Miranda,  who 
by  his  appointment  regained  some  part  of  his  lost  popularity, 
forced  the  other  pass,  stormed  and  entered  the  town,  and 
drove  a  party  of  the  royalists  into  the  barrack  called  de  lo? 
pardas.  There  they  were  attacked  ;  and  with  such  deter- 
mination did  they  defend  the  position,  that  the  patriots  were 
several  times  repulsed  with  great  loss.  This  encouraged 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA,  59 

the  royalists  in  the  town,  who,  from  the  windows  and  roofs 
of  the  houses,  and  from  the  towers  of  the  churches  and 
monasteries,  poured  showers  of  musketry  on  the  troops 
with  such  destructive  effect,  that  Miranda  was  obliged  to  re- 
tire from  the  town.  He  retreated  to  Mariara,  twelve  miles 
from  Valencia,  one  of  the  hills  that  had  been  fortified  by  the 
royalists,  where  he  remained  until  the  next  month,  when,  be* 
ing  re-enforced,  he  assaulted  and  took  possession  of  the  town 
and  dispersed  the  royalists.  Miranda  was  now  at  the  head  of 
four  thousand  troops,  with  which  he  proposed  to  invade  the 
department  of  Coro,  and  although  ,the  executive  was  in  fa- 
vour of  the  proposal,  it  was  defeated  by  the  jealousy  of  the 
congress,  and  the  opposition  of  his  enemies,  whose  animosity 
was  revived  by  his  recent  success. 

The  formation  of  a  constitution  had  attracted  the  public  at- 
tention since  the  publication  of  the  declaration  of  Indepen- 
dence. A  correspondence  on  the  subject  was  carried  on  be* 
tween  Don  F.  X.  Ustariz  and  Don  J.  Roscio,  two  of  the  com- 
mittee to  whom  the  subject  had  been  referred,  with  several  in- 
dividuals in  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota,  and  others  in  the  interior  of 
Venezuela,  which,  being  published,  seemed  to  interest  every 
body  ;  and  a  series  of  essays  were  published  in  the  Caraccas 
Gazette,  written  by  one  Burk,  an  Irishman,  which,  as  well  as 
the  correspondence,  were  designed  to  convince  the  people  that 
a  federative  republic,  like  that  of  the  United  States,  was  the 
best  form  of  government  for  Venezuela. — Burk  was  patroniz- 
ed by  Ustariz,  Roscio  and  others,  who  were  warm  advocates 
of  the  federative  system,  and  being  well  acquainted  with  the 
principles  of  the  British  and  American  constitutions,  he  exhi- 
bited the  advantages  of  the  plan  proposed,  confirmed  and  illus- 
trated by  the  happy  experience  of  the  United  States,  in  so  stri- 
king a  manner,  as  produced  an  enthusiastic  admiration  of  a 
federal  republic,  which  was  almost  universal.  This  sentiment 
prevailed  also  extensively  in  New  Granada.  Whether  this 
plan  of  government  was  best,  adapted  to  the  condition  of  the 
population,  and  situation  of  the  country,  may  admit  of  doubt ; 
at  any  rate,  a  more  concentrated  and  energetic  system  was  af- 
terwards thought  preferable,  and  adopted  with  better  success. 
The  subject  was  entered  upon  in  Congress,  and  after  debating 
the  question  several  months,  a  constitution  was  prbpared,  ap- 
proved of  by  that  body,  and  offered  to  the  people  for  their 
sanction  on  the  23d  of  December.  Its  outlines  were  similar 
to  those  of  the  constitution  of  the  United  States,  as  it  respects 
the  form  or  frame  of  the  government,  but  in  two  particulars,  at 
least,  it  differed  very  materially  ;  it  established  the  Romaa 
Catholic  religion  as  that  of  the  state,  and  did  not  preserve  a 


60  HISTORY    OF    THE 

unity  of  power  in  the  executive  branch,  that  being  confided  to 
three  persons,  to  be  chosen  by  the  electoral  colleges.  The 
legislative  power  was  reposed  in  a  congress  consisting  of  a 
house  of  representatives  and  a  senate,  the  former  chosen  by 
the  electoral  colleges,  and  the  latter  by  the  provincial  legisla- 
tures ;  its  authority  was  defined  and  limited,  and  the  powers 
of  the  legislatures  of  the  several  states  or  provinces  were  limit- 
ed.  A  judiciary  was  to  be  organized,  with  a  jurisdiction  as  to 
matters  relating  to  the  federal  compact  and  national  concerns, 
ft  recognized  the  sovereignty  of  the  people,  declared  the  mu- 
lattoes  and  other  casts  eligible  to  any  employment  in  the  state ; 
abolished  the  use  of  the  torture,  the  trade  in  slaves,  the  tri- 
bute of  the  Indians,  and  provided  for  their  civilization.  Ma* 
racaibo  and  Guiana  were  to  be  admitted  into  the  confederacy 
us  soon  as  they  might  be  free  from  the  dominion  of  Spain* 
A  federal  territory  was  acquired  where  the  government  was  to 
be  established,  in  imitation  of  the  United  States  ;  the  town  of 
Valencia  was  ceded  to  the  confederacy,  and  the  congress 
opened  its  first  session  there,  under  the  new  constitution,  in 
March,  1812. 

The  territory  comprising  the  present  republic  of  Colombia, 
consisted,  whilst  under  Spain,  it  will  be  remembered,  of  two 
distinct  governments — Venezuela  and  New  Granada,  each 
comprising  a  number  of  provinces.  When  the  authority  of 
the  regency  of  Spain  was  disobeyed  in  1810,  these  territories 
acted  separately,  although  with  some  degree  of  concert,  and 
established  separate  juntas  and  provisional  governments. — 
Some  of  the  provinces,  also,  availing  themselves  of  the  gene- 
ral disorder,  attempted  to  withdraw  themselves  from  their 
political  connexions,  and  established  governments  for  them- 
selves. This  led  to  much  confusion,  and  in  some  instances 
to  war,  among  the  different  independent  governments ;  at  the 
same  time,  that  they  were  all  at  war  with  Spain.  It  also 
served  to  disconnect  the  events  of  the  revolution,  so  that  it 
becomes  necessary  to  trace  them,  for  some  time  at  least,  dis- 
tinctly in  each  of  the  new  governments.  We  commenced 
with  Cara'ccas,  or  Venezuela,  and  having  traced  the  events 
of  the  revolution  down  to  the  establishment  of  the  constitu- 
tion, we  will  return  to  the  opening  of  the  bloody  drama  in  New 
Granada. 

The  government  of  New  Granada  comprised  twenty-two 
provinces,  situated  between  Venezuela,  Peru,  and  Guatama- 
la.  These  provinces  contained  two  and  a  half  millions  of  in- 
habitants, and  the  capital,  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota,  nearly  thirty- 
five  thousand. 


REVOLUTION   IN    COLOMBIA*  61 

It  has  been  stated,  that  on  receiving  intelligence  from  Spain 
of  the  dispersion  of  the  central  junta,  and  the  creation  of  the 
regency,  a  junta  was  established  at  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota,  in 
July,  1810,  by  a  public  meeting  assembled  under  the  sanction 
of  the  viceroy.  This  junta  at  first  chose  Don  A.  Amar,  the 
viceroy,  president,  and  acknowledged  the  authority  of  the  re- 
gency of  Cadiz.  In  a  few  days  the  junta  were  alarmed  by  the 
report  of  a  conspiracy,  formed  by  the  viceroy,  and  the  mem- 
bers of  the  audience  ;  and  for  their  own  safety,  they  caused 
the  viceroy,  and  most  of  the  members  of  the  audience,  to  be 
arrested  and  sent  to  Carthagena,  from  whence  they  were  con- 
veyed to  Spain.  The  junta  disavowed  the  authority  of  the  re- 
gency, and  published  a  manifesto,  inviting  the  several  provin- 
ces of  new  Granada,  to  send  deputies  to  a  congress  at  Santa 
Fe  de  Bogota,  to  establish  a  provisional  government  during 
the  captivity  of  the  king.  Nine  of  the  provinces,  namely, 
Tunja,  Pamplona,  Casanare,  Carthagena,  Socorro,  Antioquia, 
Choco,  Neyva,  and  Mariquita,  declared  in  favour  of  the  revo- 
lution. Santa  Martha,  was  also  in  favour  of  the  revolution, 
yet  acknowledged  the  authority  of  the  regency ;  but  some 
months  afterwards,  the  junta  of  the  province  was  overthrown 
by  the  intrigues  of  the  Spaniards,  and  a  new  one  created,  en- 
tirely devoted  to  Spain.  In  Popayan,  the  governor  called  a 
public  meeting  of  the  most  considerable  persons  in  the  prov- 
ince, which  decided  that  it  was  expedient  to  establish  a  junta  ; 
but  the  governor,  chagrined  at  their  conduct,  dissolved  the  as- 
sembly, and  raised  troops  to  attack  the  junta  of  Santa  Fe. — 
The  latter,  however,  aware  of  the  hostile  designs  of  the  gov- 
ernor, and  to  check  his  career,  had  despatched  Baraya  with 
a  body  of  troops  to  watch  and  oppose  him.  An  action  was 
fought  about  twelve  miles  from  the  town  of  Popayan,  in  the 
beginning  of  the  year  1811,  in  which  Tacon,  the  governor, 
was  defeated.  The  regency  of  Spain,  alarmed  at  the  progress 
and  diffusion  of  the  disaffection,  attempted  to  conciliate  the 
inhabitants  of  New  Granada  by  sending  among  them  two  of 
their  countrymen,  Don  A.  Villavicencio,  and  Don  C.  Montu- 
far,  as  commissioners,  to  support  the  authority  of  the  regen- 
cy ;  but  they  did  not  arrive  until  the  revolution  had  progressed 
too  far,  and  the  public  mind  become  too  deeply  imbued  with 
liberal  sentiments,  to  admit  of  their  being  of  any  use  to  their 
employers. 

Montufar  arrived  at  Quito,  a  few  days  after  the  massacre 
of  the  inhabitants,  on  the  2d  of  August,  1810,  by  the  troops 
sent  from  Lima  ;  which  so  exasperated  the  people,  that,  with 
no  other  weapons  than  knives  and  clubs,  they  attacked  the 
soldiers  with  such  fury  as  induced  the  Spanish  authorities  tp 


02  HISTORY    OF    THE 

order  the  troops  to  withdraw  from  the  city,  and  to  pass  a  de- 
cree of  oblivion  in  favour  of  the  inhabitants.  Taking  ad- 
vantage of  the  fears  of  the  Spanish  authorities,  Montufar  pre- 
vailed on  them  to  establish  a  junta  for  the  province.  This 
junta  is  the  only  one  of  which  the  regency  of  Spain  ap- 
proved. 

In  September,  1810,  the  junta  of  Carthagena  issued  a  man- 
ifesto, setting  forth  the  advantages  which  would  result  to 
New  Granada,  by  a  union  of  all  the  provinces  in  a  federal  go- 
vernment ;  and  at  the  same  time  conceding  that  the  provin- 
ces were  absolved  from  their  political  connexion,  and  had  a 
right  to  adopt  what  form  of  government  they  pleased  ;  for  as 
the  cessions  at  Bayonne  destroyed  the  compact  between 
Spain  and  America,  so  the  revolution,  at  Santa  Fe,  severed 
the  bond  of  union  which  had  bound  together  the  provinces 
of  New  Granada.  This  reasoning,  calculated  to  mislead,  was 
carried  a  little  farther  by  the  inhabitants  of  some  of  the  de- 
partments, who  supposed,  that  if  the  revolution  had  dissolved 
the  political  bands  which  united  the  provinces,  it  had,  also, 
broken  the  ties  which  had  connected  together  the  different  de- 
partments of  the  same  province.  Mompox,  a  department  of 
Carthagenia,  adopting  the  fallacious  and  dangerous  reasoning 
of  the  junta  of  the  province,  proceeded  to  form  a  junta  for 
the  department,  and  also  to  appoint  deputies  to  the  congress  to 
be  held  at  Santa  Fe.  The  government  of  Carthagena,  not 
willing  to  have  their  doctrine  applied  to  their  own  pro- 
vince, by  its  departments,  sent  a  military  force  under  Don  N. 
Ayos,  and  compelled  Mompox  to  return  to  her  connexion  with 
Carthagena. 

Near  the  close  of  the  year  1810,  the  junta  of  Caraccassenf 
an  ambassador  to  the  new  government  at  Santa  Fe,  and  an  al- 
liance was  entered  into  between  them  for  their  mutual  protec- 
tion. And  in  December,  some  of  the  deputies  to  the  general 
congress  had  assembled  at  Santa  Fe.  Several  deputies,  also, 
arrived  from  departments,  which,  like  Mompox,  were  disposed 
to  be  formed  into  separate  provinces.  This  gave  rise  to  a 
question  which  threatened  to  increase  the  existing  difficul- 
ties, whether  the  deputies  from  the  departments  should  be 
admitted  to  their  seats  in  the  congress.  At  length,  by  the  in- 
fluence of  Don  A.  Narino,  secretary  to  the  congress,  it  was 
agreed  to  suspend  the  decision,  to  give  time  to  bring  about 
an  accommodation  of  the  dispute.  The  pretensions  of  the 
departments  were  finally  silenced,  and  the  congress,  relieved 
from  this  difficulty,  convened  again.  A  confederacy  or  com- 
pact was  formed  by  the  representatives  of  Pamplona,  Tunja, 
Neyva,  Carthagena,  and  Antioquia,  on  the  27th  of  November. 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA.  63 

1811,  at  Santa  Fe.  The  provinces  retained  the  management 
of  their  local  and  internal  concerns,  and  those  of  a  general 
nature  were  confided  to  the  federal  congress.  A  supreme 
judicature  was  established  to  decide  on  questions  growing 
out  of  the  federal  union,  and  the  executive  power,  as  well  as 
the  legislative,  was  intrusted  to  the  congress. 

The  province  of  Cundinamarca  disapproved  of  the  articles 
of  confederation,  and  refused  to  deliver  up  the  mint,  which  it 
was  required  to  do,  by  the  stipulations  made  by  the  congress. 
An  assembly  of  deputies  of  the  province  of  Cundinamarca  was 
convened  by  the  junta  of  Santa  Fe,  its  capital,  to  frame  a  con- 
stitution ;  and  one  being  prepared,  it  was  ratified  on  the  17th 
of  April,  1812,  by  a  convention  called  especially  for  that  pur- 
pose. Thus  the  junta  of  Santa  Fe,  who  gave  the  first  im- 
pulse to  the  revolution  in  New  Granada,  by  establishing  a  sep- 
arate and  opposing  government  for  the  province,  were  also  the 
first  to  sow  the  seeds  of  dissention  which  produced  such  bit- 
ter fruits.  The  constitution  was  a  limited  monarchy,  acknow- 
ledging Ferdinand  VII. ;  but  providing,  that  during  the  cap- 
tivity of  the  king,  a  president,  two  counsellors,  senators, 
judges  of  a  supreme  court  of  judicature,  and  the  members  of 
a  military  board,  should  be  elected  by  the  electoral  colleges 
once  every  three  years.  The  president  possessed  the  execu- 
tive power,  but  was  to  act  in  concert  with  the  two  counsel- 
lors, and  the  legislative  power  was  confided  to  the  senators 
and  members  of  the  high  court  of  justice. 

After  the  defeat  of  Tacon,  the  royal  governor  of  Popayan, 
he  tied  to  Pastos,  where,  for  the  purpose  of  raising  an  army  to 
oppose  the  troops  of  Santa  Fe,  he  liberated  the  slaves,  and 
formed  them  into  soldiers,  for  the  purpose  of  enslaving  his 
countrymen.  This  was  the  first  instance  of  slaves  being  in- 
stigated to  revolt  against  their  masters,  since  the  commence- 
ment of  the  revolution.  The  forces  he  raised  by  these  base 
means,  were  not  sufficient  to  oppose  the  troops  sent  against 
him  by  the  juntas  of  Quito  and  Popayan ;  and  he  was  com- 
pelled to  retreat  to  the  south  sea  coast,  near  the  port  of  San 
Buenaventura.  -Don  N.  Rodriguez,  having  succeeded  Ba- 
raya  in  the  command  of  the  army,  pursued  him  closely,  and 
completely  defeated  him  at  Isquande,  near  the  close  of  the 
year  1811. 

Don  J.  Lozano,  president  of  the  government  of  Cundina- 
marca, proposed  to  the  provinces  of  New-Granada  to  make  a 
new  division  of  their  territory,  the  whole  to  form  four  parts, 
in  each  of  which  a  subordinate  republic  was  to  be  established, 
and  these  formed  into  a  a  federal  republic.  This  plan,  he 
thought,  would  give  sufficient  energy  to  the  government  to  en- 


64  HISTORY    OP   THE 

able  it  to  overcome  the  difficulties  attending  the  establishment 
of  their  independence.  The  plan  was  opposed  by  the  junta 
of  Carthagena,  and  also  by  the  congress,  then  in  session,  at 
the  town  Of  Ibagua,  where  it  had  removed  from  Santa  Fe, 
after  Cundinamarca  refused  to  enter  into  the  confederacy, 
Lozano  resigned  his  situation  as  president,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Don  A.  Narino,  who  was  not  in  favour  of  the  proposed 
federal  government,  but  wished  to  establish  one  more  ener- 
getic. He  was  supported  in  his  project  by  the  provinces  of 
Mariquita,  Neyva,  and  Socorro  ;  Tunja  was,  also,  inclined  to 
fall  in  with  his  plan,  when  a  body  of  the  troops  of  Cundina- 
marca, under  Baraya,  stationed  in  the  town  of  Tunja,  declar- 
ed against  Narino,  and  in  favour  of  the  congress.  This  indu- 
ced the  congres  immediately  to  rem  >ve  to  Tunja,  and  occa- 
sioned a  civil  war  between  the  adherents  of  Narino  and  those 
of  the  congress,  in  the  beginning  of  the  year  1812.  An  ac- 
tion was  fought  at  Paloblanco,  in  the  province  of  Socorro,  in 
which  Narino's  troops  were  defeated,  and  the  agents  of  the 
congress,  availing  themselves  of  this  success,  persuaded  Mari- 
quita and  Neyva  to  join  the  confederacy.  The  congress,  in 
consequence,  removed  to  the  town  of  Neyva,  in  October, 
1812.  The  army  of  the  confederacy  was  again  successful, 
at  Ventaquemada,  which  enabled  the  forces  of  the  congress 
to  besiege  Santa  Fe  in  December.  Narino  resigned  the  presi- 
dency before  this  event,  but  the  legislative  power  refused  to 
accept  it ;  he  proposed  to  the  besiegers  that  he  would  quit 
New  Granada,  on  condition  that  they  would  spare  the  lives  and 
property  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  capital.  This  reasonable 
proposal  was  not  acceded  to  ;  the  besiegers,  confident  of  suc- 
cess, insisted  on  the  surrender  of  the  capital  at  discretion, 
which  being  refused,  they  stormed  the  city,  but  were  repulsed 
with  great  loss,  and  a  large  part  of  their  army  dispersed.  A 
single  division,  under  the  command  of  Girardot,  reached  Tun- 
ja. A  monument  of  stone,  called  San  Victorino  was  erected 
in  that  part  of  the  city  where  the  action  was  fought,  with  in- 
scriptions explanatory  of  the  signal  victory  which  saved  the 
capital.  These  civil  dissentions,  arming  the  patriots  against 
each  other,  who  were  engaged  in  the  same  contest,  and  that, 
a  contest  for  liberty,  were  equally  injurious  and  disgraceful  to 
their  cause. 

The  junta  of  Quito  being  threatened  with  hostilities  from 
the  royalists  of  the  province  of  Cuenca,  raised  an  army  for 
its  defence.  The  royal  army  of  Cuenca  was  commanded  by 
the  bishop,  and  many  of  its  officers  were  ecclesiastics,  who 
carried  black  standards  ;  and  to  show  that  they  felt  the  influ- 
ence of  the  religion  they  professed,  which  teaches  to  "  resist 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA.  6/> 

not  evil,"  they  assumed  the  name  of  the  army  of  death.  When 
the  junta  of  the  province  of  Quito  was  established  in  August, 
1810,  Ruiz  de  Castilla  was  named  president;  but  when  the 
regency  of  Spain  approved  of  the  junta,  they  appointed  Mo~ 
lin  to  be  its  president.  The  junta  refused  to  acknowledge 
him  as  president,  and  complained  of  his  conduct  to  the  Cortes 
of  Spain.  Placing  himself  at  the  head  of  the  troops,  which, 
after  the  massacre  of  the  2d  of  August  had  retired  from  Quito 
to  Guayaquil,  he  marchad  to  attack  Quito,  and  entered  its 
territories,  notwithstahding  the  Cortes  had  ordered  him  to  de- 
sist from  hostilities.  He  refused  to  obey  this  order,  on  pre- 
.  tence  that  it  had  been  obtained  by  false  representations.  Don 
C.  Montufar  commanded  the  troops  of  Quito,  and  was  defeat- 
ed by  the  royalists  of  Cuenca,  which  enabled  the  troops  from 
Lima,  under  Montes,  who  had  succeeded  Molin  in  the  com- 
mand, to  enter  the  town  of  Quito  on  the  6th  of  November, 
1812.  .The  bloody  Montes  destroyed  every  thing  before  him  ; 
a  scene  of  devastation  and  massacre  was  exhibited  shocking 
to  contemplate  ;  one  fifth  of  the  inhabitants,  who  had  remain- 
ed to  defend  the  city,  were  cruelly  murdered  ;  and  not  satis- 
fied with  this  slaughter,  a  detachment  of  his  army  was  sent  in 
pursuit  of  those  who  had  fled  from  the  town  before  its  capture. 
And  as  if  to  show  his  triumphing  in  such  vandalism,  he  gave 
an  account  of  his  bloody  deeds,  himself,  in  a  letter  of  the  1 1th 
of  November,  addressed  to  the  governor  of  Guayaquil.  After 
the  capture  of  Quito,  Montes  relinquished  the  command  of 
the  army  to  Don  N.  Samano,  a  Spanish  officer,  who  was  sta- 
tioned at  Santa  Fe  when  the  revolution  broke  out.  Samano 
marched  towards  Santa  Fe,  and  on  his  way  took  the  town  of 
Popayan.  Previous  to  this,  Don  J.  Caycedo,  president  of  the 
junta  of  Quito,  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  royalists  of 
Pastes,  who  had  also  defeated  the  troops  of  the  province  of 
Popayan,  commanded  by  Macaulay,  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  who,  with  many  of  his  officers,  were  made  prisoners. 
Caycedo,  Macaulay,  and  the  other  prisoners,  were  all  put  to 
death  by  the  royalists. 

Alarmed  at  the  progress  of  the  royal  forces,  every  where 
marked  with  rapine  and  massacre,  the  government  of  Cundi- 
namarca  and  the  congress  were  aroused  to  the  necessity  of 
throwing  aside  their  feuds,  and  uniting  in  the  common  cause , 
and  for  their  common  safety.  They  agreed  to  unite  their 
forces,  and  to  intrust  the  command  to  Narino,  the  president, 
who  by  both  governments  was  appointed  dictator.  The  uni- 
ted troops  amounted  to  eight  thousand  men,  at  the  head  of 
which  Narino  marched  against  the  royalists  under  Samano. 
He  engaged  and  defeated  them  at  El  atto  del  Palace,  from 

VOL.  II.  24 


66  HISTORY    OF    THE 

whence  they  retreated  to  Tumbo,  twenty  miles  south  of  the 
city  of  Popayan,  where,  being  re-enforced,  they  advanced  to 
Popayan,  and  encamped  at  Calivia.  Here  the  Independents 
attacked  them,  and  a  most  obstinate  action  was  fought  ;  the 
contest  was  maintained  with  that  desparate  fury  on  both  sides 
which  characterizes  a  civil  war.  Victory  at  length  declared 
for  the  patriots,  and  the  royalists  were  forced  to  retreat. 
Narino  established  a  popular  government  at  Popayan,  and 
marched  towards  Pastos.  Samano  was  superseded  in  the 
command  of  the  Spanish  army  by  Aymerci,  who  brought  a 
re-enforcement  of  fresh  troops  from  Quito.  The  provinces 
of  Popayan  and  Pastos  being  situated  in  that  part  of  the 
mountainous  regions  of  the  Andes,  where  the  country,  rising 
as  it  approaches  the  equator,  is  admirably  calculated  for  de- 
fence ;  it  abounds  in  advantageous  positions  and  difficult  de- 
files, easily  fortified,,  and  presents  innumerable  difficulties  to 
an  advancing  army  encumbered  with  baggage.  Pastos  is 
nearly  two  hundred  and  forty  miles  from  Popayan,  and  Nari- 
no, on  his  way  thither,  engaged  and  defeated  the  royalists  at 
El  alto  de  Juanambu,  Los  Tacines  and  Aranda ;  but  in  these 
severe  engagements  he  sustained  the  loss  of  many  valuable 
officers,  of  whom  Salazar,  young  and  valiant,  was  universally 
admired,  and  his  death  deeply  deplored.  Hitherto  the  victo- 
ries of  Narino  had  cost  him  dear,  and  been  productive  of 
comparatively  little  advantages,  as  from  the  situation  of  the 
country  he  hadfbeen  unable  to  pursue  the  enemy  ;  but  hav- 
ing nearly  reached  the  town  of  Pastos,  he  expected  to  reap 
the  advantage  of  his  exertions.  At  the  moment,  however, 
when  the  object  of  his  expedition  seemed  within  his  grasp,  it 
was  wrested  from  him  by  the  artifice,  rather  than  by  the  brave- 
ry of  the  enemy.  His  army  consisted  of  two  divisions,  of 
which  he  had  the  immediate  command  of  the  one  in  advance. 
The  royalists  succeeded  by  their  spies  in  spreading  a  report 
among  the  rear  division  of  the  army,  that  Narino,  with  the 
advance,  had  been  attacked  and  completely  defeated,  which 
caused  great  consternation  in  that  part  of  the  army  ;  and  the 
enemy,  taking  advantage  of  it,  marched  with  most  of  their 
forces  against  Narino,  and  defeated  and  made  him  prisoner  ; 
thus  verifying  the  truth  of  the  premature  report  they  had  put 
in  circulation.  This  defeat  was  so  serious,  that  it  was  with 
great  difficulty  Don  J.  M.  Cabal,  who  succeeded  to  the  com- 
mand, though  a  prudent  and  skilful  officer,  could  effect  a  re- 
treat to  Popayan,  being  hotly  pursued  by  the  royalists,  flush- 
ed with  victory  and  thirsting  for  vengeance.  Most  of  the 
prisoners  were  put  to  death  ;  but  it  is  remarkable  that 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA.  67 

no  was  spared  and  sent  a  prisoner  to  Quito,  thence  to  Lima, 
and  finally  to  Cadiz  in  Spain.* 

The  defeat  near  Pastes  occurred  in  June,  1814,  and  the 
account  of  it  reached  the  congress  about  the  same  time  they 
received  the  disagreeable  intelligence  from  Europe  of  the 
overthrow  of  Bonaparte  and  the  restoration  of  Ferdinand  to 
the  throne  of  Spain,  and  of  the  defeat  of  the  patriots  in  Vene-  , 
zuela. 

*_"  Don  A.  Narino  is  one  of  those  few  enterprising:  characters 
who  had  long  viewed  it  with  a  prophetic  eye,  and  even,  in  some  mea- 
sure, prepared  the  minds  of  the  inhabitants  of  Santa  Fe  for  inde- 
pendence. His  opinions  and  wishes,  too  freely  expressed  in  the 
early  part  of  his  youth,  caused  his  imprisonment  in  1794,  and  that  of 
many  of  his  friends,  distinguished  young1  men  at  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota. 
Duran,  Cabal,  Cortes,  Urnana,  Nanno,  Zea,  and  others,  were  at 
that  time  sent  to  Spain  under  an  escort.  Narino  escaped  the  vigi- 
lance of  his  guards,  and  made  his  escape  in  the  very  act  of  landing 
at  Cadiz,  and  presented  himself  to  the  government  at  Madrid.  Not- 
withstanding this  act  of  suomission,  the  Spanish  government  was 
going  too'der  his  arrest,  when  Narino  again  escaped,  and  went  to 
France  ;  from  whence  he  came  to  England  at  the  very  epoch  when 
Mr.  Pitt's  plan  for  separating  Terra  Firma  from  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment was  in  contemplation  in  1796.  Then  Narino  returned  to  New 
Granada  incognito,  with  the  view  of  carrying  it  into  effect,  but  he 
was  discovered  and  confined  many  years  :  during  which  he  suffered 
the  hardships  of  poverty,  close  imprisonment,  &c.  H  last  he  re- 
gained his  liberty,  on  condition  that  he  should  never  quit  Santa  Fe, 
and  that  he  should  be  always  accompanied  by  a  soldier.  When  the 
war  in  Spain  commenced,  the  fovernmeat  of  Santa  Fe,  being  afraid 
of  his  uncommon  powers  of  persuasion,  as  well  as  of  the  credit  he 
possessed,  had  him  arrested,  ordering  him  to  be  sent  to  Carthagena; 
but  Narino  again  escaped  at  El  Banco  over  the  river  Magdalena, 
and  went  to  Santa  Maria  A  Spaniard,  who  knew  the  house  where 
he  was  concealed,  discovered  it  to  the  governor,  who  had  him  im- 
mediately taken,  and  then  enforced  the  former  orders  of  the  govern- 
ment, by  sending  him  to  Carthagena,  where  he  was  thrown  into  the 
dungeons  of  Fort  Bocachica  When  the  revolution  took  place,  he 
was  released;  but  his  health  was  greatly  impaired,  and  his  legs  had 
suffered  much  from  tue  fetters  he  had  been  compelled  to  wear  during 
his  imprisonment,  Having  been  taken  prisoner  at  Pastos,  it  is  won- 
derful that  he  was  not  executed,  as  almost  all  the  prisoners  were  at 
that  time  ;  but  he  was  conducted  to  Quito,  thence  to  Lima,  and  he 
is  now  confined  at  La  Caracca,  in  Cadiz  One  of  his  sons,  Antonio, 
gave  at  Bocachica  a  noble  example  of  fili  I  duty  and  affection,  by 
suffering  himself  to  be  imprisoned  with  his  father,  whose  misfortunes 
he  wished,  by  sharing,  to  alleviate" — Outline  of  the'  Revolution  in 
South  America, 


HISTORY    OF    THE 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Earthquake  in  Venezuela — its  influence  on  the  revolution — event* 
of  the  war  in  Venezuela — success  of  the  royalists — Caraccas 
'taken — capitulation  of  Miranda — violation  of  it  by  the  royal- 
ists— dungeons  of  Puerto  Cabello  filled  with  the  patriots — 
Spanish  authority,  reestablished  in  Venezuela — Bolivar — he 
revives  the  war — penetrates  into  Venezuela — his  success — the 
war  of  death — victories  of  the  patriots — Bolivar  enters  Ca- 
raccas, and  liberates  Venezuela — success  of  the  patriots — the 
royalists  arm  the  slaves — devastate  the  country— patriots 
again  successful — battle  of  Carabobo — Bolivar  defeated  at  La 
Puerta— royalists  re-conquer  Venezuela — surrender  of  Ma- 
turin. 

WE  now  resume  the  history  of  the  revolution  in  Venezue- 
la, which  we  had  brought  down  to  March,  1812,  when  con- 
gress commenced  its  first  session  under  the  new  constitution. 
At  this  period  the  affairs  of  Venezuela  prospered  ;  the  gov- 
ernment was  popular,  and  great! unanimity  prevailed  among 
the  people  ;  the  military  force  was  adequate  to  the  defence  of 
the  republic,  and,  as  was  thought,  to  expel  the  royalists  from 
Guiana  and  Maracaibo.  Commerce  began  to  revive,  to  pro- 
mote which,  and  at  the  same  time  conciliate  the  good  opinion 
of  England,  the  congress  reduced  the  duties  four  per  cent, 
in  favour  of  the  manufactures  and  commerce  of  that  country. 
Three  thousand  men,  commanded  by  general  Marino,  were  on 
the  banks  of  the  Orinoco,  ready  to  cross  and  attack  the  royal- 
ists of  Guiana  in  the  city  of  Angostura  ;  another  corps  of  the 
republican  troops  was  stationed  at  Barquisimeto,  to  check 
the  royalists  of  Coro.  But  this  prosperity  in  Venezuela,  and  all 
the  hopes  which  it  inspired,  were  annihilated  in  a  moment. 
On  the  26th  of  March,  between  the  hours  of  four  and  five 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  one  of  those  awful  convulsions 
which  the  earth  sometimes  experiences,  spread  desolation 
and  dismay  over  Venezuela.  During  a  minute  and  fifteen 
seconds,  the  earth  groaned  and  agonized  in  convulsions, 
which  were  attended  with  the  most  awful  consequences  ;  the 
towns  of  Caraccas,  La  Guayra,  Mayquetia,  Merida,  and  San- 
felipe,  were  laid  in  ruins,  and  Barquisimeto,  Valencia,  Victo 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA.  69 

na,  and  many  others,  were  considerably  injured.  Nearly 
twenty  thousand  persons  fell  victims  to  this  tremendous  earth- 
quake. But  the  desolation  great  as  it  was,  was  not  the 
most  serious  part  of  this,  calamity  ;  it  raised  up  from  its  own 
ruins  the  most  dangerous  enemy  to  the  liberties  of  Venezuela 
— bigotry,  and  the  religious  prejudices  of  a  superstitious  and 
priest-ridden  people.  The  catastrophe  occuired  on  Holy 
Thursday,  when,  in  Roman  Catholic  countries,  the  people  all 
commemorate  the  sufferings'  of  the  Redeemer,  of  which,  rep- 
resentations are  exhibited,  and  at  the  very  hour  when  the  peo- 
ple were  crowding  on  to  the  churches  to  attend  to  the  ceremo- 
nies and  join  the  processions.  The  troops,  as  is  usual,  werd 
stationed  at  the  entrance  of  the  churches  to  follow  the  pro- 
cessions ;  and  most  of  the  churches  being  thrown  down,  and 
also  the  principal  barracks  at  Caraccas,  a  considerable  number 
of  the  soldiers,  as  well  as  the  citizens,  were  crushed  to  death 
and  buried  under  the  ruins  ;  and  most  of  the  arms  and  ammu- 
nition were  likewise  destroyed./  This  calamity,  happening  on 
the  day  and  the  very  hour  of  a  holy  festival,  the  priests  interprer 
ted  into  a  divine  judgment,  and  a  manifestation  of  the  displeas- 
ure of  the  Almighty,  at  the  abominable  wickedness  of  attempt- 
ing to  secure  their  liberty.  They  proclaimed  from  the  pulpit  that 
a  holy  God  had  condemned  the  revolution,  in  language  too  au- 
dible not  to  be  heard,  c^id  too  distinct  to  be  misunderstood  ; 
and  they  denounced  his  vengeance  on  all  who  favoured  it. 
They  told  the  credulous  people,  that  as  the  earth  swallowed 
up  the  rebellious  Korah  and  his  crew,  they  were  punished  in 
the  same  way,  for  the  same  sin — rebellion  against  their  gov- 
ernment. 

Aided  by  the  consternaton  this  catasprophe  had  occasioned, 
they  made  the  credulous  inhabitants  almost  believe  that  hell 
was  opening  its  fiery  jaws  to  devour  them.  And  with  an  ig- 
norant and  superstitious  people,  accustomed  to  revere  and  im- 
plicitly to  obey  the  clergy,  their  interested  zeal  produced  an 
extensive  and  alarming  effect. 

At  Barquisimeto,  as  well  as  at  Caraccas,  the  barracks  were 
thrown  down,  and  a  considerable  part  of  the  troops  buried  un- 
der the  ruins  ;  and  Xalon,  their  commander,  severely  wound- 
ed. On  the  very  day  of  this  calamity,  they  were  preparing 
to  march  to  attack  the  royalists  at  Carora,  which  place  they 
had  taken  possession  of  the  day  before.  To  fill  the  meas- 
ure of  the  difficulties  of  the  patriots,  there  was  a  serious  de- 
ficit in  the  public  treasury,  and  the  paper  currency  which 
congress  had  been  obliged  to  issue,  and  which  maintained 
its  credit  until  the  earthquake,  since  that  e?e,nt,  had  rapidly 

24* 


70  HISTORY    OF    THE 

depreciated,  and  its  circulation  could  only  be  kept  up  by  se- 
vere penalties. 

The  congress,  sensible  that  a  crisis  had  occurred  which 
threatened  the  existence  of  the  republic,  prepared  to  meet  it. 
General  Miranda  was  intrusted  with  the  chief  military  com- 
mand, and  discretionary  power  conferred  on  him  to  raise 
troops,  and  in  all  things  relating  to  the  defence  of  the  state,  to 
'  act  as  he  thought  best.  After  adopting  the  measures  the  con- 
dition of  the  country  demanded,  congress  adjourned  to  enable 
the  members  to  serve  in  the  army,  or  return  to  the  provinces 
and  attempt  to  rouse  the  people,  dispirited  and  filled  with  su- 
perstitious fears,  to  a  sense  of  the  danger  which  threatened 
them  and  their  country. 

At  the  head  of  two  thousand  men,  armed  with  the  muskets 
saved  from  the  ruins,  Miranda  marched  to  meet  the  enemy, 
who  had  .advanced  from  Carora  after  the  earthquake,  and  took 
possession  of  Barquisimeto  without  opposition.  Here  the 
royalists  received  constant  re-enforcements,  as  the  inhabitants, 
wishing  to  abandon  a  cause  frowned  upon  by  heaven,  were 
eager  to  ensure  their  own  safety  by  enrolling  themselves 
among  its  opposers.  Monte verde,  who  commanded  the  roy- 
alists, moved  on  to  Araure,  where  a  detachment  of  the  repub- 
licans was  stationed  under  Col.  F.  Palaciosojo  ;  but  his  troops 
refusing  to  fight,  he  was  made  a  prisoner,  and  the  place  taken 
without  exertion  or  sacrifice.  Araure  is  on  the  confines  of 
those  vast  plains,  which  form  a  considerable  part  of  the  prov- 
inces of  Caraccas  and  Barinas,  from  which  the  cattle  are  ob- 
tained that  supply  the  settlements  in  the  mountainous  parts  of 
Venezuela,  on  which  account  it  became  an  important  object  to 
possess  it.  For  this  purpose  Monteverde  sent  a  detachment 
of  his  army  to  invade  Barinas,  and  writh  his  main  force  march- 
ed to  attack  San  Carlos.  The  latter  place  was  entrusted  to  M. 
Carrabano,  who  made  a  vigorous  defence  ;  but  the  defection 
of  his  cavalry,  who  went  over  to  the  royalists,  decided  the 
fate  of  the  town.  There  was  no  fci  ce  now  opposed  to  Mon- 
teverde that  could  check  his  progress  ;  and  the  army  on  the 
Orinoco  was  at  so  great  a  distance  that  it  could  not  re-enforce 
General  Miranda. 

The  difficulties  with  which  the  patriots  had  to  contend  in 
defending  the  republic,  were  greatly  increased  by  the  scatter- 
ed population,  the  distance  between  the  capitals  of  the  differ- 
ent  provinces,  and  the  badness  of  the  roads.  The  republican 
troops  on  the  Orinoco  sustained  some  loss  on  the  25th  of 
March  in  crossing  the  river  ;  but  still  might  have  taken  Angos- 
tura, had  not  the  earthquake,  together  with  the  intelligence  of 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA.  71 


the  rapid  successes  of  Monteverde,  disheartened  them,  which 
led  to  disaffection,  and  finally  desertion. 

Monteverde  advanced  rapidly  towards  Caraccas  with  an 
army  flashed  with  victory  and  impelled  by  enthusiasm,  being 
told  that  they  were  only  instruments  in  the  hands  of  heaven 
in  putting  an  end  to  a  revolution,  which  God  and  the  church 
had  so  emphatically  condemned.  To  oppose  his  advance,  Mi- 
randa ordered  the  evacuation  of  Valencia,  and  concentrated 
his  forces  in  the  pass,  or  defile,  called  La  Cabrera,  near  the 
lakes  Tacarigua,  through  which  the  high  road  led.  This  was, 
undoubtedly,  the  best  position  to  oppose  an  army  invading 
Caraccas,  on  the  western  side  ;  but  the  inhabitants  of  that 
district,  ready  to  abandon  the  new  government,  in  the  hour  of 
adversity,  declared  f6r  the  royal  cause ;  and  to  recommend 
themselves  to  Monteverde,  acquainted  him  with  an  obscure 
and  unknown  foot  path,  which  avoided  the  defile  of  La  Ca- 
brera. Monteverde,  with  much  difficulty,  led  his  men  in  this 
•  route,  which  compelled  Miranda  to  retreat  to  the  town  of  Vic- 
toria, fifty  miles  from  Caraccas.  The  royalists  followed  close- 
ly in  the  rear  of  the  republican  army,  and  attacked  it  the  last 
of  June  with  great  spirit,  but  were  received  with  steadiness, 
and  repulsed  with  loss.  At  this  time,  when  Miranda's  deci- 
sive and  judicious  conduct  was  giving  discipline  and  confi- 
dence to  the  army,  reviving  the  hopes  of  the  people,  and  rous- 
ing them  to  exertions  worthy  of  the  occasion,  a  disastrous 
event  occurred,  which  disconcerted  all  his  plans,  arid  served 
to  extinguish  the  flickering  blaze  of  the  lamp  of  liberty.  The 
Spanish  prisoners  at  Puerto  Cabello,  by  the  treachery  of  an 
officer  on  guard,  obtained  possession  of  the  castle  and  fort  in 
which  they  were  confined.  Simon  Bolivar,  then  a  colonel  in 
the  service  of  the  republic,  who  had  the  command  of  the 
place,  deemed  it  impossible  to  retake  the  fort  by  storm,  with- 
out destroying  the  town  ;  unwilling  to  do  that,  he  embarked 
with  his  officers  for  La  Guayra.  The  fall  of  Puerto  Cabello, 
into  the  hands  of  the  royalists,  supplied  them  with  ammuni- 
tion, of  which  they  were  in  great  want,  and  opened  to  them  a 
communication  by  sea  with  Coro  and  Puerto  Rico,  whereby 
they  could  supply  their  army,  which  they  had  before  been 
compelled  to  do,  over  land,  for  more  than  four  hundred  and 
fifty  miles.  The  intelligence  of  the  fall  of  Puerto  Cabello 
reached  Caraccas,  and  the  army,  on  the  5th  of  July,  when  en- 
gaged in  celebrating  the  anniversary  of  their  independence  ; 
and  greatly  discouraged  the  people  and  dispirited  the  troops. 
The  alarming  aspect  of  affairs,  and  the  general  consternation 
which  prevailed,  occasioned  disaffection  among  the  people, 
and  desertion  among  the  troops  ;  and  the  forces  of  Miranda. 


72  HISTORY  OF    THE 

being  greatly  inferior  to  those  of  Monte  Verde,  and  lessening 
daily  by  desertion,  whilst  the  royalists  were  increasing,  he 
dared  not  hazard  an  engagement ;  and  sensible  that  Caraccas 
could  not  long  hold  out,  as  the  country  which  supplied  it  with 
cattle  was  in  the  possession  of  the  enemy,  provided  it  could 
withstand  a  storm,  which,  however,  would  probably  have  de- 
stroyed what  the  earthquake  had  spared.  The  Spaniards  in 
the  city,  too,  were  prepared  to  revolt ;  and  it  had  been  neces- 
sary to  arrest  and  confine  them,  as  the  only  means  of  prevent- 
ing it.  Under  these  appalling  circumstances  and  accumula- 
ted difficulties,  Miranda  and  the  executive  power  thought  it 
adviseable  to  propose  a  capitulation.  The  offer  was  accepted 
by  Monteverde,  and  the  following  terms  agreed  upon  between 
him  and  the  commissioners  of  Miranda,  which  were  signed 
and  ratified  : 

"  1st.  That  the  constitution  offered  by  the  Cortes  to  the 
Spanish  nation  was  to  be  established  in  Caraccas. 

"  2dly.  That  no  one  was  to  suffer  for  former  opinions. 

"  3dly.   That  all  private  property  was  to  be  held  sacred. 

*'  4thly.  That  emigration  was  to  be  permitted  to  those  who 
wished  to  quit  Venezuela.", 

Thus  Caraccas  and  the  republican  army  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  royalists ;  and  with  them  fell  the  republic  of  Venezuela. 
Happily,  however,  it  did  not  fallv  "  never  to  rise  again,"  for 
from  its  ashes  has  sprung  up  a  republic,  which  has  not  only 
been  able  to  defend  itself,  but  to  become  the  liberator  of  its 
brethren  in  other  parts  of  Spanish  America. 

To  give  a  finishing  stroke  to  the  republic,  its  army  sent 
against  Guiana  was  defeated  ;  and  the  Spanish  government 
once  more  resumed  its  authority  over  Venezuela.  But  its 
power  being  re-established,  the  articles  of  the  capitulation 
were  forgotten  ;  it  did  not  comport  with  the  dignity  or  honour 
of  the  Spanish  government  to  keep  its  plighted  faith  with  re 
bels  ;  the  capitulation  was  violated  in  the  most  shameful  man- 
ner, and  the  patriots  were  as  much  exposed  to  the  vengeance 
of  the  royalists,  as  they  could  have  been  if  there  had  been 
no  guarantee  of  their  safety.  Miranda  and  many  others  pro- 
ceeded to  La  Guayra,  where  they  intended  to  embark  for 
Carthagena  ;  but  Don  M.  Cacas,  military  commandant  of  La 
Guayra,  caused  them  to  be  arrested,  thinking,  by  such  base 
conduct,  to  gain  favour  with  the  conqueror.  Miranda  and 
nearly  one  thousand  patriots  were  thrown  into  the  dungeons 
of  La  Guayra  and  Puerto  Cabello.  Many  were  sent  to  Puerto 
Rico,  and  a  number  to  Cadiz,  who  were  condemned  by  the. 
Cortes,  without  trial,  to  an  unlimited  imprisonment.  Some  of 
those  sent  to  Spain  were  Spaniards  by  birth,  but  had  been  in 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA,  73 


the  service  of  the  republic ;  the  greater  number,  however, 
were  South  Americans ;  the  latter  were  released  by  the  re- 
monstrances of  the  British  government,  in  1816,  but  the  Span- 
iards were  condemned  to  linger  out  a  miserable  existence  in 
the  dungeons  of  Ceuta. 

Monteverde  now  had  the  power  of  restoring  peace  to  a  dis- 
tracted country,  which,  after  two  years  of  civil  war,  panted 
for  repose.  But  instead  of  being  a  minister  of  peace,  or  at- 
tempting to  sooth  the  irritations,  and  heal  the  wounds  of  the 
revolution,  his  heart  was  filled  with  vengeance.  The  inhabit- 
ants of  Venezuela,  being  the  first  who  shook  off  the  Spanish 
yoke,  and  gaveHhe  first  impulse  to  the  revolution,  it  seems  to 
have  been  deemed  expedient  to  make  an  example  of  them, 
and  by  the  severity  of  their  punishment,  to  fill  the  insurgents 
in  other  parts  of  Spanish  Ametica  with  consternation,  and  thus 
check  the  revolution.  But  whether  it  was  from  any  calcula- 
tions of  this  kind,  or  merely  from  a  spirit  of  vengeance,  the 
whole  population  of  Venezuela  was  proscribed,  and  Caraccas 
converted  into  one  great  prison.  Every  royalis^  became  a 
public  accuser  ;  and  to  have  supported  the  late  government, 
even  after  it  was  established,  was  a  crime  in  the  eyes  of  a  ty- 
rant, which  could  only  be  expiated  with  blood.  \\  hen  all  the 
dungeons  were  filled,  the  buildings  which  would  admit  of  it, 
were  converted  into  prisons  ;  and  it  was  said,  with  appearance 
of  truth,  that  nearly  the  whole  populatios  was  under  confine- 
ment. These  severe  measures,  in  direct  and  open  violation  of 
the  national  faith,  were  not  only  justified  by  ,the  government  of 
Spain,  but  the  minister  of  war  in  a  report  to  the  Cortes  on  the 
colonies,  in  October,  1813,  complained  "of  the  indulgence 
that  had  been  shown  to  the  insurgents  of  Caraccas." 

But  this  cruel  and  oppressive  conduct  of  the  royalists  was 
not  more  unjustifiable  than  it  was  impolitic  ;  had  a  mild  and 
conciliatory  course  been  pursued,  it  might  have  'allayed,  at 
least  for  some  time,  the  revolutionary  spirit ;  but  oppression 
served  to  enkindle  its  latent  sparks,  and  blow  them  once  more 
into  a  flame.  '1  his  broke  out  first  in  the  province  of  Cumana, 
which  had  suffered  least  in  the  late  disasters,  and  consequent- 
ly was  less  weakened  in  its  means  of  resistance.  Don.  N.  Ma- 
rino, young,  active,  and  brave,  raised  the  standard  of  revolt, 
and  collected  a  force  with  which  he  surprised  and  took  the 
town  of  Maturin  ;  here  he  was  attacked  by  the  Spaniards,  and 
repulsed  them  ;  a  second  attack  was  made  by  Monteverde  in 
person,  and  the  royalists  were  again  defeated. 

But  the  revival  of  the  revolution  in  Venezuela  is  principally 
owing  to  the  same  individual  who  sustained  and  carried  it 
through  a  long  and  sanguinary  contest,  and  finally  brought  it 


74  HISTORY    OF    THE 

to  a  conclusion  ;  securing  for  his  country,  independence  and 
liberty,  and  for  himself  the  well-earned  title  of  The  Liberator. 
As  the  history  of  the  revolution  in  Venezuela  and  New  Grana- 
da, from  this  period,  is  in  a  great  measure  identified  with  that 
of  the  life  and  services  of  Don  Simon  Bolivar,  it  may  be  proper 
to  introduce  him  more  particularly,  and  to  shew  what  part  he 
had  acted  previous  to  this  period.     Bolivar  is  a  native  of  Ca- 
raccas,  and  belonged  to  one    of  the  most    respectable  and 
wealthy  families  of  that  city  ;  in  his  youth  he  went  to  Spain  to 
complete  his  education,  and  there  obtained  permission  to  trav- 
el into  France,  England,  and  Italy.     His  liberal  education, 
improved  by  travel,  and  an  acquaintance  with  many  of  the  en- 
lightened men  in  Europe,  early  imbued  his  mind  with  liberal 
sentiments  ;  and  having  witnessed  the  condition  and  charac- 
ter of  an  independent,  if  not  a  free  people,  he  was  deeply  affect- 
ed with  the  degradation  and  oppression  of  his  native  country. 
At  Paris  he  attended  on  all  public  lectures,  and  attracted  no- 
tice by  his  talents  and  learning     here  he  contracted  an  inti- 
macy   with  baron  Humboldt   and   Bonpland,  the  celebrated 
South  American  travellers  ;  in  company  with  whom,  he  visit- 
ed England,   Italy,    Switzerland,   and  a  considerable  part  of 
Germany,  and  made  himself  acquainted  with  the  political  con- 
dition, the  character  and  habits  of  the  peopie  in  these  differ- 
ent countries.     He  had  *•  fair  opportunity  of  discovering  the 
wonder-working  influence  of  political  and  religious  institutions 
on  the  human  race  ;-  that  the  social  character  of  man  was 
formed  by  them,  and  that  they  were  the  sources  of  the  power 
and  prosperity  of  nations,  as  well  as  of  their  degradation,  im- 
poverishment and  oppression. 

He  discovered  that  liberty  was  the  natural  element  of  man, 
where  alone  his  faculties  attained  their  just  growth  and  full 
developement,  and  which  gave  to  him  his  proper  rank  and  dig- 
nity in  creation.  As  his  soul  warmed  with  the  love  of  liberty, 
he  more  deeply  lamented  the  enslaved  and  degraded  condi- 
tion of  his  own  country.'  With  these  sentiments  he  returned 
to  Venezuela,  just  at  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution.  He 
inherited  more  than  one  thousand  slaves,  which  he  emancipat- 
ed, and  embarked  his  whole  property,  a  princely  income,  in  the 
revolutionary  cause.  He  was  solicited  by  the  junta  of  Carac- 
Cas  to  go  on  an  embassy  to  England,  in  conjunction  with  Don  L. 
Lopez  Mendez,  which  he  declined.  Disapproving  of  the  pol- 
icy pursued  by  the  congress,  he  remained  in  retirement  at  Ca- 
raccas,  until  after  the  earthquake,  when  the  storm,  which  was 
gathering  over  his  country,  called  him  forth  in  her  defence. 
He  was  appointed  a  colonel,  and  intrusted,  by  Miranda,  with 
the  important  command  of  Puerto  Cabello,  which  place,  a? 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA.  75 

has  been  stated,  he  was  unfortunately  obliged  to  abandon  to 
the  royalists.  He  disapproved  of  the  capitulation  of  Miranda, 
and  after  Monteverde  entered  Caraccas,  obtained  from  him  as 
a  special  favour,  a  passport  to  embark  for  Curracoa  ;  from 
whence  he  sailed  to  Carthagena,  where  he  obtained  from  the 
junta,  or  government  of  the  province,  the  command  of  a  small 
body  of  troops,  with  which  he  freed  the  banks  of  the  river 
Macrdalena,  from  the  power  of  the  royalists,  in  the  latter  part 
of  1812.  Satisfied  that  the  Venezuelans  were  disposed,  once 
more,  to  throw  uff  the  Spanish  yoke,  now  more  intolerable 
than  before  the  revolution,  he  sent  colonel  Rivas,  his  second 
in  command,  to  Tunja,  to  solicit  of  the  congress  of  New  Gra- 
nada, then  in  session  at  that  place,  a  re-enforcement  of  troops, 
to  enable  him  to  invade  Venezuela.  In  the  mean  time,  he  ad- 
vanced with  his  troops  on  the  road  to  Ocana.  The  Congress 
approving  of  the  plan,  and  thinking  they  could  not  better  pro- 
mote the  security  of  New  Granada,  than  by  affording  employ- 
ment for  the  royalists  in  Venezuela,  they  suppliedBolivar  with 
six  hundred  men. 

Thus  re-enforced,  he  crossed  the  Andes  with  his  little  army, 
and  approached  the  river  Tachira,  which  is  the  boundary  be- 
tween New  Granada  and  Venezuela.  He  surprised  the  royal- 
ists at  Cucuta,  and  dispersed  them  ;  and  from  thence  des- 
patched Colonel  Nicholas  Briceno,  with  several  other  officers, 
to  Guadualito,  to  raise  troops.  Briceno,  having  raised  a 
squadron  of  cavalry  invaded  the  province  of  Barinas  ;  and  in 
the  mean  time,  Bolivar  himself  defeated  the  royalists  at  La 
Grita,  and  occupied  the  department  of  Merida.  Briceno,  af- 
ter several  successful  engagements,  was  at  length  defeated 
and  himself  and  seven  of  his  officers  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
royalists,  all.  of  whom,  Tiscar,  the  royal  governor  of  Barinas9 
soon  after  executed,  together  with  eight  of  the  most  respect- 
able inhabitants  of  the  town  of  Barinas,  on  the  pretence  that 
they  were  endeavouring  to  aid  the  enterprize  of  Briceno. 
Bolivar,  who  had  hitherto  treated  the  Spaniards  who  had  fal- 
len into  his  power,  as  prisoners  of  war,  and  with  humanity, 
exasperated  at  such  cruel  and  savage  conduct,  and  believing 
that  the  war  could  not  be  conducted  on  such  unequal  princi- 
ples, as  that  the  captured,  on  one  side,  should  enjoy  the  rights 
of  prisoners  of  war,  whilst  those  on  the  other  were  put  to 
death  like  ferocious  beasts,  resolved  on  retaliation,  and  declar- 
ed that,  henceforth,  the  prisoners  which  he  made,  should  be 
treated  in  the  same  manner  as  the  royalists  treated  their  pris- 
oners. The  contest,  from  this  period,  was  called  and  appro- 
priately, the  'soar  of  death — la  guerra  a  muerte. 


76  HISTORY    OF    THE 

The  cruelties  and  oppressions  of  the  royalists,  had  so  exas- 
perated the  people,  that  they  rallied  round  Bolivar,  as  their 
deliverer,  and  his  forces  increased  daily.  This  induced  him 
to  divide  them  into  two  corps,  one  of  which  he  placed  under 
colonel  Rivas,  and  both  were  destined  against  the  province  of 
Caraccas.  In  passing  through  the  province  of  Barinas  and 
the  department  of  Truxillo,  the  royalists  were  engaged  and  de- 
feated at  Niquitao,  Betijoque,  Carache,  Barquisimeto,  Bari- 
nas and  Lostaguanes.  The  last  action  in  which  Monte verde 
had  collected  his  best  troops,  was  decided  by  the  desertion  of 
his  cavalry,  who  went  over  to  Bolivar.  With  the  remnant  of 
his  forces,  Monteverde  retreated  to  Puerto  Cabello.  Bolivar 
now  advanced  rapidly  on  Caraccas,  and  the  royal  governor, 
alarmed  for  its  security,  called  a  council,  composed  of  the  offi- 
cers of  the  garrison,  the  members  of  the  audiencia,  and  the 
clergy,  which  agreed  to  propose  terms  of  capitulation.  The 
commissioners  from  the  governor,  met  Bolivar  at  Victoria, 
and  although  confident  of  entering  the  city,  as  it  had  no  ade- 
quate force  for  its  defence,  he  did  not  hesitate  to  accept,  the 
proposed  terms.  To  prevent  alarm,  he  declared  that  no  per- 
son should  suffer  on  account  of  his  former  attachment  to  the 
Spanish  government,  and  that  all  who  wished  to  emigrate, 
would  be  permitted  to  leave  Venezuela,  with  their  property. 
Eierro,  the  governor  of  Caraccas,  embarked,  carrying  off  all 
the  public  and  private  property  he  could  collect,  and  leaving 
at  the  mercy  of  the  conqueror,  nearly  fifteen  hundred  Span- 
iards who  had  no  means  of  escaping.  The  treaty  of  capitula- 
tion, notwithstanding  this  violation  of  it  by  the  governor,  was 
sent  to  Monteverde,  at  Puerto  Cabello,  who  declined  ratify- 
ing it,  for  the  wise  reason,  "  that  it  was  derogatory  to  the  dig- 
nity of  the  Spanish  nation  to  treat  with  insurgents." 

Bolivar  made  3,  public  entry  into  the  capital,  on  the  4th  of 
August,  1813  ;  and  the  first  meeting  of  his  troops  and  the 
inhabitants  was  affectieg  and  impressive  in  the  extreme  ;  they 
embraced  each  other  as  friends  and  brethren,  who  had  long 
been  parted,  and  who  had  toiled,  suffered  and  bled  in  the 
same  cause.  The  dungeons  and  prisons  were  thrown  open, 
and  those  victims  of  royal  cruelty,  whom  a  year's  confinement 
had  not  relieved  by  death,  were  restored  to  their  liberty,  their 
friends,  and  their  country.  And  not  only  the  prisoners,  but 
their  fellow  citizens,  with  hearts  overflowing  with  joy,  greeted 
Bolivar  and  his  companions  in  arms  as  their  deliverers,  an 
the  liberators  of  their  country.  But  universal  as  was  the  joy 
gratitude  and  exultation  of  the  inhabitants  of  Caraccas,  they 
did  not  reproach  or  insult  the  Spaniards. 

Venezuela  was  again  rescued  from  the  dominion  of  tyrants  > 


REVOLUTION  IN  COLOMBIA.  77 

the  eastern  part  having  been  freed  by  Marino,  and  the  rest  de- 
livered from  their  power  by  Bolivar,  who  justly  obtained  the 
title  of  El  Liber ador  de  Venezuela, — the  Liberator  of  Vene- 
zuela. The  town  of  Puerto  Cabello,  alone  was  in  possession 
of  the  royalists.  Bolivar  immediately  sent  a  flag  of  truce, 
proposing  to  Monteverde,  an  exchange  of  prisoners,  and  al- 
though the  Spanish  prisoners  in  his  possession  were  much  the 
most  numerous,  he  proposed  to  release  them  all,  if  the  Span- 
ish commander  would  liberate  the  prisoners  he  had  at  Puerto 
Cabello.  But  having  received  during  the  negotiation,  twelve 
hundred  troops  from  Spain,  Monteverde  obstinately  refused 
any  exchange.  He  now  felt  able  to  act  on  the  offensive, 
and  attack  the  patriots  at  Aguacaiente,  but  suffered  a  dread- 
ful defeat,  nearly  his  whole  force  being  either  killed  or 
made  prisoners,  and  Monteverde  himself  seriously  wound- 
ed ;  in  consequence  of  which  Saloman  took  the  command 
of  the  remnant  of  the  royalists  which  escaped  to  Puerto  Ca- 
bello. 

Bolivar  renewed  the  same  offer  of  an  exchange  of  prison- 
ers, to  Saloman,  by  whom  it  was  not  only  refused,  but  the 
bearer  of  the  flag  of  truce,  was  seized,  loaded  with  fetters, 
and  thrown  into  prison  at  Puerto  Cabello.  And  Istucta,  the 
successor  of  Saloman,  committed  the  savage  outrage,  of  pla- 
cing the  patriot  prisoners  along  his  line,  exposed  to  the  bat- 
teries of  their  countrymen,  to  prevent  their  firing  ;  and  at  night 
ihey  were  thrown  into  prison,  where  nearly  fifty  died  at  one 
lime,  by  suffocation.  This  led  to  retaliation,  and  the  besieg- 
ers exposed  the  Spanish  prisoners  before  their  line  of  battle  ; 
which  occasioned  a  greater  outrage  still  on  the  part  of  the 
Spanish  general.  He  ordered  four  of  the  most  distinguished 
patriots  in  his  possession,  to  be  placed  in  front  of  the  encamp- 
ment of  their  countrymen,  and  in  their  view  publicly  to  be 
shot.  These  were  Pellin,  Osorio,  Pointet,  and  Manuel  Puli- 
do,  all  distinguished  for  their  patriotic  zeal,  and  highly  esteem- 
ed and  admired  by  their  fellow  citizens.*  No  further  at- 
tempt at  an  exchange  of  prisoners,  or  communication  took 
place  between  the  belligerant  parties,  but  the  contest  became 
3n  exterminating  war,  and  was  carried  on  with  destructive 
fury  on  both  sides.  Bolivar  prosecuted  the  siege  of  Puerto 
Cabello,  the  place  being  invested  by  sea  and  land  ;  the  town 
•fell  into  the  hands  of  the  besiegers,  except  that  part  com- 
manded by  the  fortress,  which  alone  remained  as  a  refuge  to 
the  royalists.  But  although  the  garrison  wanted  provisions, 
and  were  wasting  by  disease  occasioned  by  the  damp  soil. 

*  General  Boliyar's  Letter,  published  in  Watonr's  Expose, 
VOL.  II.  25 


78  HISTORY  OF  THE 

the  Spanish  commandant  refused  to  listen  to  terms  of  capitu 
lation.  A  haughtiness  of  temper,  a  proud  and  unyielding 
spirit,  which  no  difficulties  can  subdue,  and  an  obstinate 
perseverance,  are  the  primary  characteristics  of  the  Spanish 
Character.  Puerto  Cabello  continued  to  hold  out  and  the 
-position  of  the  fortress  is  so  advantageous,  and  the  garri- 
son, well  supplied  with  ammunition,  were  so  active  and  de- 
termined in  its  defence,  that  it  could  not  be  taken  by  storm 
without  a  sacrifice  of  live's,  which  Bolivar  was  unwilling  to 
make. 

The  royalists  of  Coro,  being  re- enforced  with  troops  from 
Puerto-Rico,  marched  into  the  territory  of  Caraccas,  and  on 
the  10th  of  November,  1813,  defeated  a  party  of  the  Indepen- 
dents at  Barquisimeto.  Bolivar  marched  to  repel  them  ;  he 
engaged  and  routed  them  at  Vigirima,  Barbula,  and  Araure. 
In  the  action  of  Barbula  the  patriots  lost  young  Girardot,  who 
had  been  distinguished  for  his  active  intrepidity,  in  numerous 
battles,  both  in  Venezuela  and  New  Grenada.  The  Liberator 
ordered  an  annual  mourning  for  this  national  calamity,  and  as- 
signed a  pension  to  the  family  of  Girardot,  for  ever. 

Bolivar  had  invaded  Venezuela  under  the  auspices  of  the 
\r6nfederacy  of  New  Granada,  and  had  been  directed,  on  his 
liberating  the  country,  to  restore  the  republican  government, 
which,  from  the  unsettled  state  of  affairs  he  did  not  consider 
adviseable  to  do.  Since  the  capitulation  of  Caraccas,  the 
country  had  been  under  a  military  government  ;  and  although 
this  power,  odious  in  its  mildest  form,  was  not  abused  by  the 
i  deliverer  of  the  country,  his  inferior  officers,  not  under  his 
immediate  control,  were  in  some  instances  guilty  of  arbitrary 
and  oppressive  conduct,  which  occasioned  complaints  against 
the  military  government,  and  Bolivar  himself.  This  gave  him 
uneasiness,  as  he  could  not,  from  the  commencement  of  his 
career,  endure,  even  that  he  should  be  suspected  of  enter- 
taining ambitious  projects,  or  any  designs  except  the  libera- 
tion of  his  country.  He  summoned  a  general  convention, 
consisting  of  the  magistrates,  the  higher  ecclesiastics,  the 
members  of  the  municipality,  colleges,  the  board  of  trade* 
and  all  the  proprietors  of  lands,  to  resign  his  authority  into 
their  hands,  and  leave  them  to  establish  such  provisional  gov- 
ernment as  they  might  deem  expedient.  This  assembly  con- 
vened on  the  2d  of  January,  1814  ;  and  Bolivar  appeared  be- 
fore them  ;  after  explaining  his  views  and  intentions  in  inva- 
ding Venezuela,  he  resigned  his  authority  ;  and  retiring,  de- 
sired the  assembly  to  provide  such  authorities  as  in  their  opin- 
ion, the  safety  of  the  country  required.  Mendoza,  the  gov- 
ernor of  Caraccas,  Rodriguez,  president  of  the  municipality. 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA.  79 

and  Alzum,  successively  addressed  the  assembly,  and  urged 
the  expediency,  under  the  existing  aspect  of  affairs,  of  suffer- 
ing the  supreme  power  to  remain  in  the  hands  of  the  Libera- 
tor, and  proposed  to  re-vest  it  in  him,  astoictator,  until  a  repre- 
sentative government  could  be  established,  either  for  Vene 
zuela  alone,  or  in  conjunction  with  New  Granada.  This  pro- 
posal  was  approved  of,  and  the  supreme  power  vested  in  the 
Liberator. 

The  royal  chiefs  were  filled  with  rage  at  the  success  of  Bo- 
livar, and  were  determined,  that,  if  they  could  not  re-conquer 
Venezuela,  they  would  destroy  it,  and  render  it  a  useless  ac- 
quisition to  the  victorious  patriots.  Not  satiated  with  the 
blood  and  devastation  of  a  civil  war,  they  wished  to  light  up 
the  torches  of  a  servile  one,  and  to  arm  the  slaves  against  their 
masters.  For  this  purpose  emissaries  were  sent  into  the  in- 
terior of  the  country,  to  incite  the  revolt  of  the  slaves,  and 
organize  a  servile  force.  The  most  obnoxious  of  these,  were 
Boves,  Yanez,  Rosette,  and  Puy,  Spaniards  ;  and  Palomo,  a 
negro,  who  had  been  outlawed  as  a  robber  and  an  assassin. 
The  governor  of  Spanish  Guiana  supplied  Boves  and  Rosette 
with  arms  and  ammunition,  who  were  to  operate  in  the  east- 
ern part  of  the  province  of  Caraccas  ;  and  Puy  and  Palomo. 
had  assigned  to  them,  as  their  theatre  of  action,  the  western 
part  of  the  province  of  Caraccas,  Barinas,  Merida,  and  Trux- 
i  Ho,  and  were  assisted  by  the  royalists  of  Puerto  Cabello,  Co- 
ro,  and  Maracaibo.  There  were  70,000  slaves  in  Venezuela, 
who  roused,  not  only  by  the  prospect  of  obtaining  their  liber- 
ty, but  by  the  promise  of  the  wealth  and  fortunes  of  their 
masters,  and  of  allthe  disloyal  part  of  the  population  of  the 
country,  afforded  materials  for  raising  an  army,  alarming  from 
its  number,  and  its  turbulent  character  ; — *n  army  every  way 
worthy  of  its  leaders,  and  of  the  cause  in  which  it  was  to  be 
employed.  With  this  incendiary  force,  Puy  and  Palomo,  sub- 
jugated Barinas,  Guiana,  and  several  other  towns,  covering 
the  country  with  blood  and  desolation.  Boves  and  Rosette, 
marched  from  the  banks  of  the  Orinoco  to  the  valleys  of  Tuy 
,and  Aragua,  spreading  desolation  before  them,  and  tracing 
their  paths  in  blood,  which  if  collected  into  one  channel,  the 
'*  purple  current,'  would  have  tinged  the  mighty  waters  of  the 
Orinoco.  It  is  almost  incredible,  yet  what  was  well  establish- 
ed, that  in  an  extent  of  country  of  four  hundred  miles  from 
the  Orinoco1,  to  the  environs  of  Caraccas,  forming  the  limits 
of  this  murderous  campaign,  not  a  human  being  was  spared, 
who  did  not  join  the  robbers.  By  such  exterminatory  and 
murderous  warfare,  they  spread  terror  over  the  country,  which 
served  to  increase  their  numbers  to  8,000  men.  Of  this 


80  HISTORY    OF    THE 

entire  army,  there  were  only  fifty  Spaniards  and  Creoles,  tli< 
rest,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  free  mulattoes,  were  slaves. 
Animated  by  the  hopes  of  plunder,  and  some  of  them  stim- 
ulated by  revenge,  their  turbulent  fury  overcame  every  thing 
which  opposed  them  ;  they  spread  terror  before  them,  and 
left  ruin  and  desolation  behind.  Boves  took  possession  of 
Victoria,  only  forty  miles  from  Caraccas  ;  and  Rosette  enter- 
ed Ocumare,  thirty  miles  from  the  capital,  while  Puy  and 
Yanez,  having  subdued  Barinas,  advanced  to  join  Boves,  in 
February,  1814.  Encouraged  by  these  successes,  the  Span- 
ish prisoners  at  Caraccas,  and  La  Guayra,  amounting  to  near- 
ly 1400,  entered  into  a  conspiracy  against  the  government, 
and  were  prepared  to  revolt.  Many  Spaniards  united  into  a 
body,  and  stationed  themselves  in  the  road  between  Carac- 
cas, and  La  Guayra,  for  the  purpose  of  murdering  travellers, 
and  to0ut  off  the  communication.  The  situation  of  Carac- 
cas was  critical,  and  its  danger  imminent  ;  it  required  uncom- 
mon exertions  to  prevent  its  falling  into  the  hands  of  an  ene- 
my, whose  mercies  were  like  those  the  tiger  shows  to  its  prey. 
The  number  of  the  forces  of  Bolivar  were  greatly  inferior  to 
those  of  the  enemy,  and  were  scattered  over  the  country.  If 
the  garrisons  of  Caraccas  and  La  Guayra  were  called  into  the 
field,  there  would  have  been  the  greatest  danger  of  the  rising 
of  the  Spanish  prisoners  in  the  city,  who  were  rendered  per- 
fectly desperate  from  the  determination  of  the  Spanish  chiefs, 
to  admit  of  no  exchange  with  the  insurgents.  Under  these 
alarming  circumstances,  which  threatened  Caraccas  with  the 
greatest  of  all  evils,  that  of  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  slaves, 
harassed  with  cares,  and  his  mind  oppressed  with  anxiety, 
and  the  responsibility  of  his  situation,  and  at  the  same  time, 
highly  exasperated  at  the  outrages  of  a  ferocious  enemy,  and 
the  recent  massacres  at  Ocumare,  Bolivar,  from  the  distraction 
of  the  moment,  was  hurried  into  an  act,  which,  however  it 
might  be  justified  by  the  lex  talionis — the  principle  of  retalia- 
tion, is  shocking  to  contemplate,  and  was  as  impolitic  as  it  was- 
unjust.  He  gave  orders  to  execute  the.  prisoners,  and  eight 
hundred  Spaniards  were  put  to  death  on  this  dreadful  occa- 
sion. The  commandent  at  Puerto  Cabello,  the  moment  he 
heard  of  these  executions,  ordered  every  American  prisoner 
at  that  place,  amounting  to  several  hundred  to  be  shot. 

The  danger  from  the  slaves  being  removed,  Bolivar  march 
ed  against  the  enemy,  and  obtained  a  signal  victory  over  Boves 
at  Victoria  ;  and  Col.  Rivas  defeated  Rosette  on  the  banks  oi 
the  Tuy,  and  about  the  same  time,  the  forces  of  Yanez,  were 
also  defeated,  and  their  leader  killed  at  Ospinos.  These  vie- 
Dories  were  not  won  without  severe  fighting  and  a  heavy  loss. 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA.  8] 

the  patriots  being  greatly  inferior  in  number  to  the  enemy. — 
They  cost  them  one  third  of  their  troops  ;  and  the  advantages 
derived  from  them  were  not  great,  as  from  the  want  of  caval- 
ry the  republicans  had  not  been  able  to  pursue  the  enemy  but 
a  few  iniles.  Los  Llanos  on  which  Caraccas  is  dependant  for 
horses,  being  in  possession  of  the  enemy,  Bolivar's  cavalry 
was  but  poorly  furnished. 

Boves  and  Rosette,  having  received  some  re-enforcements, 
again  took  the  road  leading  to  Caraccas.  Perceiving  the 
storm  gathering  over  Caraccas,  general  Marino,  marched  from 
Cumana  to  the  assisistance  of  Bolivar,  and  having  joined  a 
body  of  troops  under  general  Montilla,  their  united  forces  at- 
tacked and  defeated  the  royalists  at  Bocachica,  and  about  the 
same  time,  Bolivar  himself  obtained  a  decisive  victory  at  San 
Mateo.  These  two  victories  relieved  Valencia,  which  had 
been  besieged  by  the  royalists  under  Cevallos  and  Calzadas. 

These  losses  of  the  royalists  compelled  Boves  to  retire  to 
Los  Llanos,  and  Cevallos  to  San  Carlos,  whither  the  latter 
was  pursued  by  general  Marino  ;  but  the  republican  general 
being  defeated  on  the  16th  of  April,  retreated  to  Valencia. — * 
Monteverde  was  succeeded  as  captain  general  of  Venezuela 
by  Cagigal,  who  brought  re-enforcements  from  Coro,  and  uni- 
ting them  with  the  troops  of  Cevallos  and  Calzadas,  marched 
towards  Valencia.  After  some  delay  and "  reconnoitering  on 
both  sides,  the  two  armies  engaged  the  28th  of  May,  1814,  on 
the  plains  of  Carabobo.  The  action  was  the  most  bloody  that 
had  been  fought ;  royal  rage  and  popular  fury  were  brought 
into  t^e  conflict ;  the  greatest  efforts  were  made  on  both  sides,, 
and  instances  of  valour  exhibited,  approaching  to  desperation  : 
victory  was  long  doubtful,  but  at  length  fortune  once  more 
declared  in  favour  of  the  patriots.  The  royalists  were  com- 
pelled to  leave  the  field  covered  with  their  dead  and  wounded. 
Their  whole  loss,  including  prisoners,  was  five  hundred  men, 
and  a  large  amount  of  arms  and  ammunition. 

The  royalists  retired  to  Coro  and  Los  Llanos,  whither  Boli- 
var pursued  them,  with  the  intention  of  driving  them  from 
these  territories,  from  whence  they  drew  all  their  resour- 
ces. He  sent  Urdarieta  with  five  hundred  men  against  Coro^ 
and  Marino  with  about  the  same  number  to  San  Fernando,  on 
the  river  Apure,  in  the  province  of  Barinas.  The  remaining 
division  of  his  army,  of  about  the  same  strength,  Bolivar  re- 
t  ained  under  his  immediate  command,  which  he  deemed  suf- 
ficient to  oppose  Boves.  who  not  having  been  in  the  battle  of 
Carabobo,  was  marching  against  him  with  a  numerous  squad- 
ron of  cavalry.  This  dividing  of  his  army  by  Bolivar  was  an 
'wor  which  led  to  the  most  serious  consequences.  Fatal  mis 


82  HISTORY    OF    THE 

takes  are  often  committed  by  military  commanders,  in  not  es- 
timating correctly  the  ability  or  power  of  an  adversary  ;  it  was 
this  that  occasioned  the  mistake  of  Bolivar,  and  also  just  be- 
fore, a  similar  one  on  the  part  of  the  royalists.  Had  the  latter 
waited  for  the  arrival  of  Boves,  they  probably  would  not  have 
been  defeated  on  the  plains  of  Carabobo,  and  had  not  Bolivar, 
despising  the  force  of  Boves,  divided  his  army,  he  would  not 
have  been  defeated  by  him  on  the  plains  of  La  Puerta.  In  a 
few  days  the  three  divisions  of  the  republican  army  were  sep- 
arated many  miles,  when  Boves  attacked  Bolivar  at  La  Puerta, 
a  plain  near  the  town  of  Cura,  and  about  one  hundred  and  fif- 
ty miles  from  Caraccas.  The  conflict  was  sharp,  and  main- 
tained with  great  fury  for  several  hours,  but  at  length  the  pat- 
riots were  compelled  to  give  way,  and  leave  the  field  to  Boves. 
About  the  same  time  general  Marino  was  attacked  and  repuls- 
ed by  the  united  forces  of  Cagigal  and  Calzadas,  and  his  com- 
munication with  Caraccas  cut  off,  which  obliged  him  to  retire 
to  Cumana  for  safety.  When  general  Urdaneta  heard  of  these 
disasters,  he  was  at  too  great  a  distance  to  be  able  to  afford 
any  assistance  to  Caraccas,  and  therefore  withdrew  to  Cucuta, 
on  the  frontiers  of  New  Granada. 

The  possession  of  Venezuela  was  again  lost  by  the  patriots, 
after  their  dominion  over  it  had  been  apparently  well  establish- 
ed. Their  reverses  were  great  and  sudden  ;  their  affairs 
were  prosperous  the  first  of  June,  and  in  one  month  they  had 
become  perfectly  desperate.  They  had  no  army  for  the  pro- 
tection of  Caraccas  ;  they  were  obliged  to  raise  the  siege  of 
Puerto  Cabello,  the  troops  embarking  for  Cumana  ;  and  to 
complete  their  ruin,  in  Venezuela,  much  dissatisfaction  pre- 
vailed with  Bolivar's  military  government,  occasioned  by  the 
conduct  of  some  of  his  generals,  and  the  people  of  Los  Llanos 
declared  for  the  royalists.  Bolivar  marched  with  the  remnant 
of  his  force  to  Cumana,  and  almost  the  whole  population  ol 
Caraccas  repaired  there  :  such  was  their  dread  of  falling  into 
i-iie  hands  of  an  exasperated  and  barbarous  enemy.  BOVGF 
took  possession  of  .Caraccas  and  La  Guayra  in  July,  1814  ; 
Valencia  was  besieged,  and  held  out  until  resistance  became 
of  no  further  use,  when  it  accepted  terms  of  capitulation, 
But  from  the  many  flagrant  breaches  of  faith  by  the  royalists, 
Ilie  patriots  would  not  surrender  the  place  unless  the  Spanish 
general,  in  presence  of  the  two  armies,  and  after  the  solemn 
celebration  of  mass,  would  bind  himself  by  an  oath,  taken  be- 
ibre  the  host,  religiously  to  fulfil  the  terms  of  the  treaty.  The- 
oath  was  taken,  and  the  town  delivered  up ;  but  soon  after, 
flie  royalists  believing  that  "  oaths  were  but  words,  and  word^ 
i>ut  wind,"  ordered  the  republican  officers,  and  most  of  tlu 
*<o<Miers,  to  be  shot.  Among  those  who  fell  was  the  learned 


REVOLUTION    13    COLOMBIA.  83 

and  eloquent  Espejo,  as  a  civilian  one  of  the  ablest  defenders 
and  the  brightest  ornaments  of  the  republican  cause. 

Boves  pursued  the  patriots  into  the  province  of  Barcelona, 
and  defeated  them  in  Araguita  ;  success  no  longer  followed 
the  banners  of  the  patriots  ;  the  good  fortune  of  Bolivar  seem- 
ed to  have  forsaken  him,  and  with  the  loss  of  his  power  was 
lost  the  respect  for  his  authority.  The  commandant  of  his 
flotilla  on  the  coast  refused  to  obey  his  orders.  The  sun  oi" 
Venezuelan  independence  had  once  more  set,  and  darkness 
and  despotism  overspread  the  land  where  liberty  had  first 
dawned.  With  the  patriots,  who  had  survived  these  dreadful 
reverses,  all  was  lost  except  hope,  and  the  honour  of  their 
services  to  redeem  their  country.  But  the  invincible  mind  oi" 
Bolivar  was  not  to  be  subdued  by  misfortunes,  however  tre- 
mendous, nor  shaken  from  its  purposes  by  the  most  overwhelm- 
ing reverses.  Sensible  that  nothing  more  could  now  be  done 
for  the  cause  of  independence  in  Venezuela,  he  embarked  for 
Carthagena  with  some  of  the  boldest  of  his  officers,  who  pre- 
ferred to  follow  his  fortunes,  even  in  this  night  of  adversity. 
Rivas  and  Bermudas,  with  the  remnant  of  troops,  separated 
from  him,  and  marched  to  Maturin,  already  rendered  celebra- 
ted as  the  cradle  of  the  last  revolution,  it  being  there  general 
Marino  first  raised  the  republican  standard.  Maturin  became 
the  rendezvous  of  the  desperate  patriots,  who  had  no  quarters 
to  expect  from  the  royalists  ;  and  in  a  few  days  a  considerable 
number  were  assembled  here  from  different  quarters.  This 
;  forlorn  hope'  was  successively  attacked  by  Morales  and 
Boves,  both  of  whom  were  repulsed  with  serious  loss.  Rivas 
and  Bermudas,  who  led  the  little  remnant  of  patriots,  maintain- 
ed themselves  for  a  considerable  time  ;  but  after  obtaining 
many  advantages  over  the  royalists,  they  were  at  last  compel- 
led to  yield  to  a  destiny,  which  the  vast  superiority  of  their  en- 
emies rendered  inevitable. — They  were  entirely  defeated  at 
Urica,  on  the  5th  of  December,  1814,  and  soon  after  Maturin 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  royalists  ;  an  acquisition,  however^ 
attended  with  the  loss  of  their  favourite  Boves.  Bermudas  es- 
caped with  some  of  the  troops,  and  embarked  for  the  island 
of  Margarita,  where  he  maintained  the  cause  of  the  revolution 
until  the  arrival  of  the  expedition  from  Spain,  under  Morillo, 
in  1815.  The  intrepid  Rivas  was  taken  prisoner,  shot,  and 
his  head  sent  to  Caraccas  for  public  exhibition,  to  convince 
the  inhabitants  of  that  rebellious  city,  that  such  was  the  fat*1 
that  awaited  all  traitors. 

Bolivar  proceeded  from  Carthagena  to  Tunja,  where  the 
congress  of  the  confederate  provinces  of  New  Granada  was  in 
session,  and  offered  Jits  jsqrvice,s  to  the  confederacy,  which, 
were  accepted. 


81  HISTORY    OF    TIU1. 


CHAPTER  V. 

Effect  of  the  restoration  of  Ferdinand  on  the  revolution — his  im- 
politic measures  respecting  America — dissentions  among  the 
patriots — Bolivar  sent  against  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota — it  capit- 
ulates— Cundinamarca  joins  the  confederacy — regulations  of 
the  congress — Bolivar  proceeds  against  the  royalists  in  Santa 
Martha — dispute  between  him  and  Castillo — he  lays  siege  to 
Carthagena — arrival  of  the  expedition  from  Cadiz — Morillo 
reduces  the  island  of  Margarita — he  lays  siege  to  Carthage- 
na—  it  capitulates — republican  standard  again  raised  in  Mar- 
garita— Bolivar  fits  out  an  expedition  at  Aux  Cayes — invades 
Venezuela — is  defeated — returns  to  Aux  Cayes — Morillo  con- 
quers New  Granada — enters  Bogota — massacre  of  the  patri- 
ots— war  in  Venezuela — Bolivar  takes  Angostura — Morillo'* 
unsuccessful  attack  on  Margarita. 

WE  have  now  arrived  to  a  period  which  forms  an  important, 
epoch  in  the  revolution.  The  overthrow  of  the  mighty  fabric 
of  the  power  of  Napoleon,  and  his  abdication,  in  April,  1814, 
was  an  event,  not  less  unexpected  and  astonishing,  than  impor 
tant  in  its  influence  on  the  destinies  of  Europe.  The  restora- 
tion of  Ferdinand  VII.  to  the  throne  of  Spain,  with  all  the  ab- 
solute powers  of  the  monarchy,  was  a  necessary  and  immedi- 
ate consequence.  The  establishment  of  popular  governments 
in  America  was  occasioned  by  the  usurpations  of  Bonaparte, 
and  their  object,  at  first,  at  least  the  ostensible  one,  to  resist 
his  designs  against  Spain,  and  maintain  the  rights  of  their  legit- 
imate sovereign  ;  so  that  at  an  early  period  the  intelligence 
now  received  from  Europe  would  have  filled  the  colonies  with 
joy.  But  so  great  was  the  revolution  in  the  feelings  and  opin- 
ions of  the  people,  produced  by  a  contest  of  more  than  four 
years,  carried  on  with  the  greatest  animosity  and  cruelty,  that  an 
event  which,  but  a  short  time  before,  might  have  given  rise  to 
universal  rejoicing  in  America,  occasioned  at  first,  anxiety  and 
alarm,  and  was  soon  regarded  as  the  harbinger  of  the  most 
dreadful  calamities. 

The  news  of  the  defeat  of  Narino,  and  the  retreat  of  the 
remnant  of  the  army  of  the  confederacy  to  Popayan  :  of  the 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA*  85 

total  overthrow  of  the  republican  cause  in  Venezuela,  and  thf 
important  intelligence  from  Europe,  of  the  fall  of  Napoleon, 
and  the  restoration  of  Ferdinand,  were  received  by  the  con- 
gress of  New  Granada  about  the  same  time.  The  defeat  of 
their  army,  and  the  complete  triumph  of  the  royalists  in  Vene- 
zuela, was  each  a  serious  calamity  ;  but  the  intelligence  from 
Europe  was  of  a  more  important  character.  It  entirely 
changed  the  general  aspect  of  things,  and  in  some  measure 
the  character  of  the  revolution.  The  resistance  in  America 
commenced  against  the  authority  of  the  regency  of  Spain,  and 
in  most  of  the  provinces,  the  supremacy  of  Ferdinand  was  ex- 
pressly acknowledged.  Ferdinand  was  now  on  the  throne, 
and  if  resistance  was  continued,  it  must  be  against  the  power 
of  the  legitimate  sovereign  of  Spain.  The  restoration  of  the 
king,  therefore,  changed  the  relations  between  the  colonies 
and  the  parent  country,  as  well  as  placed  the  latter  in  a  condi- 
tion to  direct  all  its  strength  against  the  rebellious  Americans, 
being  relieved  from  the  war  at  home,  and  having  no  longer  any 
employment  for  her  armies  in  the  peninsula.  At  an  earlier 
period  of  the  contest,  the  restoration  of  Ferdinand  would  have 
greatly  damped,  if  not  effectually  checked  the  spirit  of  the  rev- 
olution ;  but  after  the  struggle  had  continued  nearly  five  years, 
arid  the  minds  of  the  Americans  became  exasperated  by  the 
cruelties  and  massacres  of  the  Spanish  colonial  rulers,  it  was 
calculated  to  have  but  comparatively  little  influence.  "Had 
Ferdinand,  however,  pursued  a  conciliatory  line  ot  conduct 
towards  America  ;  had  he  condemned  the  rashness  of  the 
colonial  chiefs,  who  had  driven  the  people  into  resistance  ; 
reformed  the  abuses  and  removed  the  oppressions  of  which  the 
colonies  had  justly  complained,  probably  he  might  have  so  far 
revived  the  sentiments  of  loyalty,  as  to  have  checked,  if  not 
to  have  extinguished  the  flame  of  the  revolution.  But  instead 
of  this  course,  the  first  official  intelligence  the  Americans  had 
of  his  being  reinstated  on  his  throne,  was  a  decree,  treating 
them  as  rebels,  and  commanding  them  to  lay  down  their  arms, 
This  was  sufficient  to  satisfy  the  Americans  that  they  had  no 
more  justice  to  expect  from  Ferdinand,  than  from  the  regency  ; 
that  no  attention,  whatever,  was  to  be  paid  to  their  complaints, 
no  respect  shewn  to  their  rights.  This  decree,  dated  the  4th 
of  June,  1814,  was  soon  followed  by  another,  directing  the 
equipment  of  a  formidable  armament  at  Cadiz,  to  reduce  the 
disloyal  Americans  to  unconditional  submission.  At  the  same 
time,  the  most  rigorous  measures  were  adopted  at  home,  by  a 
bigoted  and  absolute  king,  against  the  members  of  the  Cortes 
and  other  patriots,  who  had  made  such  noble  exertions,  such 
patriotic  sacrifices,  for  *the  defence  of  his  throne.  When  such 


86  HISTORY    OF    THE 

base  ingratitude  and  injustice  were  experienced  by  the  patri- 
ots of  Spain,  what  treatment  had  the  insurgents  of  America  to 
expect  from  an  infatuated  monarch,  a  capricious  tyrant  1  A? 
the  rupture  between  the  Spanish  patriots  and  America  was 
hurried  on  by  the  regency's  declaring  war  against  the  Ameri- 
cans,  so  the  contest  as  between  Ferdinand  himself  and  the  co- 
lonies, was  placed  on  a  footing  almost  incompatible  with  ac- 
commodation, by  the  same  rash  measures  on  the  part  of  Fer 
din  and. 

Desperate  and  almost  hopeless  as  the  cause  of  the  inde- 
pendence was  rendered,  by  this  intelligence  from  Europe,  and 
the  serious  reverses  which  the  patriots  had  suffered,  the  con- 
gress of  New  Granada  was  riot  disheartened  by  these  appal- 
ling circumstances,  but  viewing  the  approaching  crisis  in  ite 
true  light,  prepared  to  meet  it.  The  first  of  September  con- 
gress  published  a  proclamation,  which,  after  detailing  the 
events  of  the  war,  and  the  sad  reverses  their  arms  had  sus- 
tained, concludes  in  the  following  language  : 

"  Such  is  the  situation  of  the  military  affairs  of  New  Gra- 
nada. Every  step  the  republicans  make  costs  a  bloody  battle 
in  the  provinces  of  Venezuela,  where  hordes  of  assassins  are 
formed  by  the  agents  of  the  king  to  check  the  progress  of  the 
friends  of  liberty.  Our  frontiers  are  constantly  molested  by 
the  loyalists  of  Maracaibo,  and  those  who  now  possess  Bari- 
llas ;  both  of  whom  keep  always  in  alarm  the  defenders  of 
Pamplona  and  Cassanare.  The  inhabitants  of  Santa  Martha 
obstinately  refuse  to  co-operate  with  us.  Carthagena  want? 
assistance  from  the  general  government,  which  is  at  the  same 
time  obliged  to  provide  for  the  defence  of  Popayan,  which  is 
again  threatened  with  invasion  ;  and  this  of  course  increase? 
the  difficulties  we  should  have  in  rescuing  the  unfortunate 
Quito  from  the  power  of  her  oppressors.  These  are  the  ob- 
jects which  imperiously  call  for  the  attention  of  the  confede- 
rate provinces.  Useless  shall  be  the  declaration  of  our  inde- 
pendence, if  we  have  not  resolution  to  support  it.  We  pos- 
sess within  ourselves  the  means  of  attaining  this  great  object, 
and  no  power  whatever  will  be  strong  enough  to  conquer  UF 
if  we  avail  ourselves  of  our  own  strength  ;  our  exertions  must 
unquestionably  be  great,  and  our  sacrifices  for  the  common 
cause  unbounded.  But  such  efforts  are  worthy  of  men  raised 
to  the  dignity  of  a  free  people,  and  are  absolutely  necessary 
since  we  have  nothing  to  hope,  and  much  to  fear  from  the  Eu- 
ropean nations.  Notwithstanding  the  cessions  at  Bayonne. 
and  the  torrents  of  blood  that  the  French  have  shed  by  the 
war  in  the  peninsula,  Ferdinand  has  been  restored  to  Spain  : 
o  nd  the  country,  now  freed  from  the  "French,  will  have  both 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA*  87 

the  power  and  the  will  to  send  a  formidable  array  again  to 
sjubdae  us." 

"  Ye  people  of  New  Granada!  contemplate  your  fate,  and 
that  of  your  posterity ;  you  may  easily  judge  of  it  ;  and  let 
your  resolution  be  formed  accordingly  and  nobly.  Again  we 
repeat,  your  destiny  depends  on  your  own  exertions." 

Alarming,  however,  as  the  crisis  was,  it  was  not  capable  of 
producing  union  among  the  republicans,  or  of  extinguishing 
those  feuds  which  had  been  equally  detrimental  and  disgrace- 
ful to  their  cause.  That  men  engaged  in  the  same  cause,  and 
Exposed  to  the  same  dangers,  should  waste  their  strength  in 
their  own  dissentions,  at  the  very  time  that  the  common  ene- 
my was  at  the  gates  of  their  capitals,  and  threatening  them 
with  one  common  ruin,  evinces  the  inveteracy  of  their  ani- 
mosities, and  the  prevalence  of  a  factious  spirit.  Such  conduct 
\yas  scarcely  less  absurd  than  that  of  the  two  owners  of  a 
building,  who  were  disputing  about  the  extent  of  their  re- 
spective rights  to  the  property,  whilst  it  was  in  flames,  instead 
of  uniting  their  exertions  to  save  it  from  the  conflagration. 
Don  Bernardo  Alvarez,  president  of  Cundinamarca,  persisted 
in  refusing  to  join  that  province  to  the  confederacy,  which  it- 
was  evident  would  greatly  strengthen  the  hands  of  the  govern* 
inent,  and  give  energy  to  the  measures  that  congress  were 
pursuing  for  the  safety  of  the  country.  At  length,  however, 
being  satisfied  that  the  people  demanded  the  union,  Alvarez 
deputed  Lozano  to  treat  with  the  congress,  and  terms  of  union 
were  agreed  upon  ;  but  the  president  objected  to  a  union,  and 
refused  to  ratify  the  treaty.  He  proposed  an  alliance,  which 
die  congress  declined  to  accept.  This  was  the  state  of  things, 
when  Bolivar  arrived  at  Tunja,  at  the  close  of  the  year  1814, 
find  engaged  in  the  service  of  the  congress..  The  confedera- 
cy at  this  time  consisted  of  the  provinces  of  Casanare,  Pam- 
plona, Tunja.,  Neyva,  Choco,  Popayan,  Cartha^ena,  Mariquita, 
Socorro,  and  Antioquia.  The  congress  resolved  to  compel,  by 
military  force,  the  province  of  Cundinamarca  to  acknowledge 
its  power  and  join  the  confederacy.  They  accordingly  sent 
Bolivar  in  December,  1814,  to  besiege  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota, 
the  capital  of  the  refractory  province.  His  army  consisted  of 
that  division  of  the  army  of  Venezuela  under  general  Urda- 
neta,  which,  after  the  defeat  pf  the  other  two  divisions,  re- 
treated to  Cucuta,  and  was  ordered  from  thence  by  the  con- 
gress to  Tunja,  with  some  additional  troops.  Bolivar  stormed 
the  city  and  obtained  possession  of  its  principal  suburbs,  when 
Alvarez  accepted  the  terms  of  capitulation  that  had  been  of- 
fered, which  were  that  the  province  should  join  the  confede- 
racy, and  enjoy  the  same  privileges  as  the  other  confederate 


88  HISTORY    OF  THE 

states.  The  electoral  college  of  Santa  Fe  was  then  assem- 
bled, which  ratified  the  capitulation,  and  invited  the  congress 
to  adjourn  its  session  to  that  capital,  which  it  soon  after  did. 

i  his  union  greatly  strengthened  the  arm  of  the  federal  gov- 
ernment, and  with  the  improvements  arid  changes  in  the  sys- 
tem, which  had  been  made  a  short  time  before,  gave  it  power 
and  energy.  By  these  changes  made  in  September  and  Octo- 
ber preceding,  each  province,  except  Casanare,  Neyva,  and 
Choco,  which  were  less  populous,  sent  two  deputies  to  the 
congress,  and  those  provinces  one ;  the  executive  power, 
which  had  been  exercised  by  the  congress,  was  confided  to 
three  persons  appointed  by  that  body,  and  the  federal  govern- 
ment possessed  authority,  to  carry  on  the  war,  and  over  the 
finances  of  the  confederate  provinces.  Don  M.  R.  Torices, 
Garcia  Rubira  and  M.  Pey,  all  distinguished  for  their  talents 
and  entire  devotion  to  the  republican  cause,  received  the  ex- 
ecutive appointment.  The  governors  of  the  provinces  were 
chosen  by  the  electors,  but  acted  as  delegates  or  officers  of 
the  general  government,  in  all  concerns  relating  to  the  confed- 
eracy. 

New  Granada  at  this  time,  possessed  a  prospect  of  security, 
stability  and  prosperity.  Although  threatened  by  the  royalists 
of  Venezuela,  Quito,  and  Santa  Martha,  it  possessed  the 
means  to  repel  all  their  attacks.  The  government  was  respec- 
ted, and  the  congress  had  adopted  several  wise  and  popular 
laws,  calculated  to  relieve  the  burdens  of  the  people,  and  pro- 
mote the  general  prosperity.  The  monopolies  of  tobacco, 
spirituous  liquors,  and  the  tribute  paid  by  the  Indians  were 
abolished  ;  foreigners  were  invited  into  the  country,  manufac- 
tures of  arms  established,  and  liberty  of  speech  and  of  the 
press  unrestricted.  Many  of  the  most  intelligent  of  the  clergy 
embraced  the  cause,  which  was  generally  popular  ;  some  pat- 
riotic citizens  tendered  their  services  to  the  government,  oth- 
ers made  contributions  of  money,  and  the  friars  of  the  order 
of  St.  Dominic,  set  a  worthy  example  of  patriotism,  by  presen- 
ting to  the  national  treasury  most  of  the  specie,  which  for 
years  they  had  been  hoarding  up  in  the  sanctuary  of  Chiquin- 
quira.  The  government  extended  its  patronage  to  the  botani- 
cal expedition  under  the  direction  of  the  celebrated  Mutis, 
which  made  important  discoveries.  To  prevent  the  intrigues 
of  the  Spaniards,  they  were  banished  from  the  territories  of 
the  confederacy,  until  the  independence  of  the  country  should 
fee  effectually  secured ;  but  were  permitted  to  remove  or  dispose 
of  their  property. 

The  army  under  Cabal  in  Popayan  was  re-enforced,  and  be- 
gun to  make  head  against  the  royalists ;  General  Urdaneta 


REVOLUTION  IN  COLOMBIA.  89 

xvas  sent  with  re-enforcements  into  the  province  of  Pamplona, 
to  repel  the  royalists  of  Maracaibo,  who  harassed  the  country 
by  their  incursions,  and,  when  attacked,  retired  to  their  fast- 
nesses in  the  forests  bordering  on  the  river  Zulia.  But  against 
the  royalists  of  Santa  Martha,  the  principal  force  of  the  re- 
public was  directed,  under  Bolivar,  who  was  appointed  cap- 
tain general  of  the  armies  of  New  Granada  and  Venezuela. 
The  government  and  their  general  in  chief,  made  great  exer- 
tions to  ensure  -success  to  this  expedition,  as  the  occupation 
of  the  province  of  Santa  Martha  would  have  been  of  great 
advantage  to  the  patriots,  in  case  the  expedition  then  preparing 
at  Cadiz  should  be  directed  against  New  Granada.  With  very 
great  exertions  3,000  men  were  raised,  at  the  head  of  which 
Bolivar  marched  as  far  as  the  town  of  Mompox,  on  the  river 
Magdalena.  Here  he  halted,  to  obtain  from  the  province  of 
Carthagena  the  additional  men  and  arms,  which  the  congress 
had  ordered  as  its  quota  of  troops  for  the  expedition.  Boli- 
var applied  to  the  governor  of  Carthagena  for  the  re-enforce- 
ment and  supplies  which  congress  had  ordered  ;  but  Don  M. 
Castillo,  military  commandant  of  Carthagena,  being  a  person- 
al enemy  of  Bolivar,  exerted  all  his  influence  with  the  govern- 
or, to  prevent  his  complying  with  the  demands  of  the  congress, 
and  unfortunately  was  too  successful.  The  pretences  he 
made  use  of,  were,  that  Bolivar  entertained  ambitious  views, 
and  had  injured  the  cause  by  his  sanguinary  career  in  Venezu- 
ela. The  remonstrances  of  Bolivar  were  unavailing  ;  the 
governor  obstinately  refused  to  comply  with  the  requisitions 
of  congress,  and  Bolivar,  disappointed  and  chagrined  at  this 
unexpected  delay,  and  exasperated  at  the  unjustifiable  con- 
duct of  Castillo  and  the  governor,  determined  that  having  ex- 
hausted the  argument,  he  would  stand  by  his  arms."  Bolivar 
immediately  marched  against,  and  laid  siege  to  the  town  of 
Carthagena,  in  hopes  to  obtain  by  force,  what  he  had  failed  to 
accomplish  by  peaceable  means  ;  and  to  compel  the  govern- 
or of  Carthagena  to  obey  the  authority  of  the  congress,  as  he 
had  before,  that  of  Santa  Fe.  Carthagena  being  a  strong 
place,  was  enabled  to  defend  itself;  for  which  object,  the 
troops  were  collected  from  other  parts  of  the  province,  leav- 
ing it  defenceless,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  a  civil  war. 
The  royalists  taking  advantage  of  this,  conquered  Mompox, 
and  most  of  the  province  of  Carthagena,  with  little  or  no  op- 
position, whilst  the  republicans  were  disgracefully  weakening 
and  destroying  themselves  by  their  own  dissentions.  This 
civil  war  completely  frustrated  all  the  judicious  measures  of 
the  federal  government,  and  threatened  the  total  ruin  of  the 
cause  of  the  patriots.  It  continued  to  rage  until  the  expedt- 
VOL.  II.  26 


90  HISTORY    OF    THE 

tion  from  Cadiz,  the  most  formidable  ever  sent  by  Spain  to 
America,  appeared  off  the  coast  of  Venezuela. — When  intelli- 
gence of  this  reached  Carthagena,  Bolivar,  whose  heart  was 
never  for  a  moment  estranged  from  the  great  cause  of  indepen- 
dence, however  he  may  have  been  led  to  engage  in  the  civil 
contests,  from  exasperated  feelings,  or  misguided  notions  of 
expediency,  would  not  suffer  a  contest  to  be  prolonged,  which) 
under  existing  circumstances  must  be  attended  with  the  most 
fatal  consequences.  He  proposed  to  the  government  of  Car- 
thagena, that  he  would  retire  from  the  province,  and  leave  his 
army,  now  considerably  reduced  by  the  civil  war  and  disease, 
to  co-operate  in  the  defence  of  the  city,  against  the  expected 
attack  from  the  expedition  from  Spain. 

This  expedition   consisted  of  ten  thousand  of  the  chosen 
and    best  troops  of  Spain,   conveyed    in  fifty  transport  ships, 
protected  by  two  frigates  ;  the   fitting  it  out  had  nearly  ex- 
hausted the  national  resources.     It  was  commanded  by  Gen- 
eral Morillo,    whose  memory  will  be  '  damned  to  everlasting 
fame,'  for  his  cruelties  in  Colombia.     It  appeared  before  Ca- 
rupano  about  the  middle  of  April,  1815,  and  was  justly  regar- 
ded as  the  harbinger  of  scenes  of  devastation  and  blood,   sur- 
passing what  had  already  been  witnessed.     It  spread  universal 
alarm   among  the  patriots  throughout   Venezuela   and   New 
Granada.      From  Carupano,  Morillo  proceeded  against  the 
island  of  Margarita,  where   general  Bermudas,  with  the  rem- 
nant of  his  troops,  and  many  of  the  patriots  of  Venezuela,  had 
repaired.     All  the  exertions  of  the  patriots  were  not  sufficient 
to  defend  the  island   against  the  powerful  force  of  Morillo  ; 
he,  however,  lost  one  of  his  frigates,  the  San  Pedro  Alcantara. 
The  patriots  mostly  escaped,    embarking  for  Carthagena  and 
the  West  India  islands.     From  Margarita,  Morillo  proceeded 
to  Caraccas,  then  in  possession  of  the  royalists,  where,  and  at 
other  cities  on  the  coast  of  Venezuela,  he  left  two  thousand  of 
his  troops  ;  but  received  in    exchange    for  those    left,  some 
troops  that  were  previously  stationed  at   Caraccas.     In   the 
month  of  June,  the  expedition  sailed  from  Puerto  Cabello  for 
the  purpose  of  besieging  Carthagena,  but  did  not  commence 
the  siege  until  August. 

Carthagena  is  situated  on  a  bay,  nine  miles  in  extent,  and 
is  divided  into  two  parts  :  the  city,  properly  so  called,  and  Gi- 
mani,  a  suburb.  The  city  is  surrounded  by  a  thick  and  high 
wall,  and  there  is  a  wall  in  front  of  Gimani,  which  is  built  in  a 
circular  form  :  and  a  ditch  or  channel,  fortified  by  stoccadoes 
on  each  side,  joins  the  walls  of  Gimani  with  the  city.  On  the 
east  of  the  city  is  a  fort,  which  overlooks  Gimani  ;  and  the  bat- 
teries on  the  hill,  called  Lapopa,  about  one  hundred  and  fifty 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA.  91 

yards  distant,  command  the  fort,  and  protect  the  town  and  its 
environs.     North  of   Lapopa  is  lake  Tesca,  that  communi- 
cates with  the  ditch  or  channel,  which  divides  the  city  from 
Gimani,  but  the  two  divisions  of  the  city  are  connected    by  a 
bridge.     Morillo  fixed  his  head  quarters  twelve  miles  from  the 
city,  at  a  place  called  Turbaco,  and  formed  his  line  so  as  to 
cut  off  all  communication  by  land  with   the  town.     Colonel 
Soublet  commanded  Lapopa,,  which  was  attacked  by  the  roy- 
alists on  the  1  Hh  of  November,  but  they  were  repulsed  with 
considerable  loss.     They,  however,  by  the    erection  of  batte- 
ries, and  the  introduction  of  gunboats  into  the  bay,  succeed- 
ed in   cutting  off  the  communication  with  the  sea,   by  Boca 
Granda,  one  of  the  outlets  to  the  ocean,  which  deprived  the 
besieged  of  all  means  of  receiving  provisions  into  the  town. 
The  city  was  twice  bombarded  ;  but  suffered    most  from  the 
want  of  provisions,  which,  after  a  siege  of  nearly  four  months, 
compelled  the  patriots  to  abandon  it  to  the  royalists.     A  gener- 
al meeting  was  held  on  the   13th  of  October,  which  resolved 
to  put  the  province  of  Carthagena  under  the  protection  of  the 
British  government :  and   Mr.    tlislop,  an  English  merchant, 
was  despatched  to  London  for  this  purpose.     But  before  any 
answer    was  received  to  his   despatches,  the  famine   raged 
to  such  a  degree,  that   it  became   necessary  to  abandon  the 
city.     The  beginning  of  December,  the  deaths  amounted  to 
one   hundred   persons  daily.     On  the  5th  of  December   the 
place  was  evacuated.     More  than  two  thousand  persons   left 
the  city,  in  eleven  ships,  most  of  them  armed  ;   the  armament 
was  attacked  by  the  royalists,  who  were  repulsed  ;  and  having 
taken  on  board  the  garrison  of  Bocachica,  it  sailed  out  of  the 
harbour,  and  left  the  city  to  their  enemies,  which  had  now  be- 
come one  vast  charnel-house.     The  next  day  the  Spaniards 
took  possession  of  it.     Most  of  the  patriots  proceeded  to  Aux 
Cayes. 

The  following  translation  from  the  official  letter  to  his  gov- 
ernment, of  Montalvo,  the  captain-general,  exhibits  a  picture 
of  horror  that  almost  staggers  belief:  "  The  horrible  appear- 
ance of  the  city  is  scarcely  to  be  described  :  the  streets,  and 
even  the  houses,  were  heaped  up  with  dead  bodies,  or  with 
those  who  were  expiring  ;  the  atmosphere  was  in  a  pestilen- 
tial state,  which  nearly  stopped  respiration  ;  groans  and  la* 
mentations  assailed  our  ears." 

A  list  of  prisoners  was  delivered  by  Morillo  to  Montalvo, 

^  with  an  intimation  that  they  ought  to  be  tried  by  the  permanent 

council  of  the  army  ;  but  the  captain-general,  by  the  advice  of 

his  assessor,  or  lawyer,  had  them  tried  by  a  common  council 

of  war,  by  which  they  were  condemned  to  death.     And  not* 


92  HISTORY    OF    THE 

withstanding  that  the  judges  of  the  court  of  audience,  who 
were  consulted  after  their  condemnation,  declared  the  pro- 
ceedings illegal,  Don  M.  Castillo,  Garcia  Toledo,  Ayos  M. 
Granados,  M.  Amador,  M.  Portocarrero,  M.  Anguiano,  M. 
Angulo,  and  S.  Stewart,  were  executed  on  the  2rth  of  Janua- 
ry, 1816.  Montalvo  assigns  among  other  reasons,  for  these 
executions,  that  it  would  have  been  scandalous  to  have  sent 
these  rebels  to  Spain,  when  others  less  criminal  had  been  ex- 
ecuted by  Morillo  ;  and  declares  that  these  were  the  first  exe- 
cutions he  had  ordered,  and  that  he  was  the  only  one  of  the 
Spanish  chiefs  in  America,  whose  conduct  had  been  so  hu- 
mane. "  Unfortunately,"  he  says,  "  the  war  now  presents  so 
direful  an  aspect,  that  it  is  not  easy  to  foresee  its  termination. 
All  might  have  been  prevented  in  the  beginning ;  perhaps 
then  to  have  punished  the  heads  of  the  resolution  would  have 
been  sufficient,  and  peace  might  have  been  restored  by  a  steady 
conduct,  politic  measures,  and  mildness  in  the  chiefs,  which 
always  sooner  or  later  produce  good  effects." 

There  was  about  two  thousand  troops  at  Carthagena  when 
the  place  was  first  besieged,  who,  with  its  inhabitants,  defend- 
ed the  city  ;  the  federal  congress  of  New  Granada  was  unable 
to  afford  them  any  assistance.  Bolivar  went  to  Jamaica  to  fit 
out  an  expedition  for  the  relief  of  Carthagena  ;  but  the  town 
surrendered  before  he  carried  his  plan  into  execution,  and  he 
again  turned  his  attention  to  Venezuela.  About  the  same 
time  that  the  Spaniards  took  possession  of  Carthagena,  Aris-, 
mendi  again  raised  the  republican  standard  in  the  island  of 
Margarita  ;  and  after  defeating  the  garrison  Morillo  had  left, 
in  several  actions,  took  possession  of  a  part  of  the  island.  In 
the  mean  time,  the  spirit  of  the  revolution  revived  in  Venezue- 
la, so  that  those  parts  of  the  country  which  the  royalists  had 
reduced,  and  where  they  considered  all  resistance  at  an  end, 
were  again  either  in  the  possession  of  the  patriots,  or  the  seats 
of  war.  The  insolence  and  arrogance  of  the  royalists  at  Ca- 
raccas  revived  the  disaffection  of  the  inhabitants,  and  occa- 
sioned many  of  the  provincial  troops,  who,  after  the  conquest 
of  the  province,  had  consented  to  fight  under  the  royal  stand- 
ard, to  desert  and  join  themselves  to  the  republican  troops, 
who  were  dispersed  over  the  country,  after  the  defeat  at  Uri- 
ca.  T  hese  troops  served  as  rallying  points  for  the  disloyal 
from  all  quarters  in  Venezuela. 

The  guerrilla  system  of  warfare  was  now  adopted,  in  imita- 
tion of  the  Spaniards  in  the  war  with  the  French.  Various 
guerrilla  parties  were  formed,  at  the  head  of  which  were  Mo- 
nagas,  Piar,  Roxas,  Zaraza,  Llanos,  and  other  intrepid  leaders, 
who  occupied  the  interior  of  the  provinces  of  Guiana,  Cu 


REVOLUTION  IN  COLOMBIA*  93 

mana,  Barcelona,  Caraccas  and  Barinas.  More  unanimity 
prevailed  among  the  inhabitants  of  Venezuela  than  had  at  any 
former  period  ;  alarmed  at  the  impending  danger,  they  seem- 
ed disposed  to  forget  former  differences,  and  to  unite  in  de- 
fence of  the  independence  of  their  country.  The  guerrillas 
carried  on  an  active  partizan  warfare,  harassing  the  Spanish 
troops,  and  by  rapidly  advancing  and  suddenly  retreating,  wor- 
ried them  with  constant  marches  and  counter- marches,  and 
when  a  favourable  opportunity  presented,  engaged  them,  and 
often  successfully. 

To  aid  the  exertions  of  theipatriots  in  the  island  of  Mar- 
garita and  in  Venezuela,  Bolivar  planned  arid  fitted  out  an  ex- 
pedition from  Aux  Cayes,  in  conjunction  with  Brion,  a  native 
of  Curracoa,  who  had  served  on  board  the  flotilla,  in  the  em- 
ploy of  the  republican  government  of  Venezuela.  Brion,  be- 
ing wealthy,  contributed  largely  towards  the  expenses  of  the 
expedition,  and  as  a  remuneration,  was  appointed  to  command 
the  maritime  force,  which  consisted  of  two  ships  of  war  and 
thirteen  transports,  most  of  which  carried  guns.  One  thou- 
sand troops  were  on  board,  made  up  of  the  emigrants  from 
Venezuela,  and  a  part  of  the  garrison  that  escaped  from  Car- 
thagena.  The  expedition  sailed  from  Aux  Cayes  the  latter 
part  of  March,  1816,  a$d  on  its  passage  engaged  and  captur- 
ed two  Spanish  ships  of  war,  after  a  severe  and  bloody  con- 
flict, in  which  Brion  was  wounded.  Early  in  May,  the  expe- 
dition landed  at  the  island  of  Margarita^  and  disembarked  the 
troops.  The  patriots  took  possession  of  the  whole  island,  the 
Spaniards  abandoning  all  but  the  fortress  of  Pampatar.  The 
expedition  sailed  from.  Margarita  to  Carupano,  fifteen  miles 
west  of  the  town  of  Cumana,  where  Bolivar  overcame  the, 
royalists,  and  took  possession  of  the  town.  His  successes 
revived  the  spirit  of  resistance  in  Caraccas,  and  numerous 
guerrilla  parties  came  to  join  him,  which  he  furnished  with 
arms.  From  Carupano,  Bolivar  sailed  to  Choroni  and  Ocu- 
mare, situated  between  the  ports  of  La  Guayra  and  Puerto 
Cabello,  and  landed  there  the  6th  of  July.  Near  Ocumare 
and  Choroni  are  numerous  plantations  of  sugar,  cocoa,  and  in- 
digo, on  which  many  slaves  were  employed.  As  the  enemy 
had  set  the  example  of  liberating  slaves,  and  thinking  that  this 
measure  would  be  expedient  in  the  present  aspect  of  affairs, 
Bolivar,  on  landing  at  Ocumare,  issued  a  proclamation  to  the 
inhabitants  of  Caraccas,  in  which  he  declares  that  "justice  and 
policy  demand  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves,  and  that  hence- 
forth there  shall  be  but  one  class  of  people  in  Venezuela  ;  all 
shall  be  citizens." 

The  successes  of  the  patriots  under  Bolivar,  and  on  the 
26* 


94  HISTORY    OF    THE 

island  of  Margarita,  astonished  the  royalists,  and  filled  them 
with  rage.  To  perceive  the  patriots  rising  up,  they  scarcely 
knew  from  whence,  and  defeating  their  garrisons  and  troops, 
and  re-occupying  the  country  they  had  so  recently  conquered, 
served  not  only  to  convince  them  what  kind  of  enemies  they 
had  to  contend  with,  and  how  difficult  it  would  be  to  conquer 
a  country,  where,  like  the  fabled  hydra,  for  every  head  that 
was  cut  off,  two  sprang  up  ;  but  these  successes  seemed  to  be 
robbing  them  of  the  victories  they  had  already  won,  and  the 
advantages  they  had  obtained.  Nothing  could  exceed  their  vio- 
lence and  fury  towards  all,  without  distinction  of  age  or  sex, 
who  favoured  the  cause  of  independence.  Among  other  out- 
rages which  were  committed  in  the  town  of  Cumana,  a  female 
of  respectable  family,  for  the  crime  of  having  spoken  against 
the  Spanish  government,  was  placed  on  an  ass,  led  through  the 
streets,  attended  by  a  guard  of  soldiers,  and  publicly  scourged 
so  barbarously  as  to  occasion  her  death. 

Bolivar  left  part  of  his  troops  at  Choroni,  under  Sir  Gregor 
M'Gregor,  a  Scotchman,  who  had  been  a  captain  in  the  Eng- 
lish army  in  Portugal,  and  had  served  in  the  cavalry  of  Vene- 
zuela in  1811,  but  whose  subsequent  exploits  acquired  for  him 
more  notoriety  than  honourable  fame  ;  and  the  residue  he  dis- 
embarked at  Ocumare.  M'Gregor,  whose  force  formed  the 
vanguard  of  the  army,  took  Maracay  and  La  Cabrera,  and  was 
proceeding  against  Victoria,  when  he  was  arrested  in  his  suc- 
cessful career  by  the  arrival  of  a  detachment  of  Spanish  troops 
under  general  Morales.  He  had  been  sent  by  Morillo  on  his 
receiving  intelligence  of  the  expedition  against  Venezuela. 
The  two  divisions  of  Bolivar's  little  army,  consisting  in  all  of 
less  than  one  thousand  men,  were  unfortunately  separated 
several  miles,  of  which  Morales  took  advantage,  and  attacked 
the  rear  guard  under  the  liberator  himself;  and  after  a  desper- 
ate and  sanguinary  contest,  Bolivar  was  compelled  to  leave 
the  field,  with  the  loss  of  two  hundred  of  his  men,  including 
most  of  his  best  officers.  The  remnant  of  his  army  sought 
safety  by  speedily  re-embarking.  This  disastrous  event  indu- 
ced M'Gregor  to  change  his  intended  movements,  and  to  take 
the  road  to  Barcelona  by  the  plains.  Encouraged  by  the  de- 
feat of  Bolivar,  the  royalists  thought  that  M'Gregor  would  fall 
an  easy  prey  :  they  pursued  him  so  furiously,  and  were  so  cer- 
tain of  capturing  him,  that  they  sent  official  information  to 
Caraccas,  that  he  had  been  defeated,  all  his  men  made  pris- 
oners, and  himself  killed,  the  very  soldier  being  named  who 
had  stripped  him  of  his  uniform  on  the  field  of  battle.  It  was 
one  hundred  miles  to  Barcelona,  and  Morales  pursued  the 
patriots  with  all  his  forces,  and  came  up  and  attacked  them  at 


REVOLUTION  IN  COLOMBIA.  95 

Alacran,  but  was  repulsed.  Morales  also  engaged  the  patri 
ots  at  Juncal,  where  he  was  completely  defeated,  and  M'Gre- 
gor  took  possession  of  Barcelona  in  October,  which  opened  to 
him  a  communication  with  the  other  republican  generals  in. 
Cumana  and  Guiana. 

The  royalists  evacuated  the  fortress  of  Pampatar  on  the 
2d  November,  leaving  the  island  of  Margarita  in  the  quiet  pos- 
session of  the  patriots,  which  enabled  general  Arismendi  te 
embark  from  the  island  with  part  of  his  troops,  and  join  the 
patriots  in  Barcelona.  Bolivar,  after  his  defeat  at  Ocumare, 
sailed  again  to  Aux  Cayes,  where,  having  obtained  re-enforce- 
ments, he  embarked  in  December,  1816,  and  stopping  at  Mar- 
garita, he  published  a  proclamation,  calling  a  general  congress 
of  the  representatives  of  Venezuela,  and  proceeded  with  his 
expedition  to  Barcelona.  Here  he  organized  a  provisional 
government,  and  was  attacked  by  the  enemy  under  Morales 
and  Real  in  the  months  of  February  and  March,  1817,  but 
defeated  them  with  great  loss.  The  royalists  were  also  de- 
feated in  Guiana  by  the  patriots  under  Piar,  in  April,  and 
compelled  to  shut  themselves  up  in  the  town  of  Angostura. 

We  return  to  the  movements  of  general  Morillo,  who,  it 
will  be  remembered,  entered  Carthagena  on  the  6th  of  JDe- 
cember,  1815.  The  possession  of  Carthagena,  in  a  great  de- 
gree, opened  to  Morillo  the  conquest  of  all  New  Granada, 
The  army  of  the  confederacy  that  had  fought  under  Bolivar, 
which  was  not  destroyed  in  the  civil  war,  had  joined  the  gar- 
rison of  Carthagena,  and  the  armies  under  Cabal  and  Urda- 
neta  were  small,  and  occupied  with  the  Spanish  forces  directly 
opposed  to  them.  Morillo  had  a  powerful  force,  which  ena- 
bled him,  by  dividing  it,  to  invade  the  confederate  provinces 
in  three  different  directions.  General  Calzadas,  with  a  force 
consisting  of  some  provincial  royalists,  and  a  part  of  the  troops 
left  by  Morillo  at  Caraccas,  invaded  the  provinces  of  Pam- 
plona and  Tunja  ;  another  division  of  the  Spanish  army  march- 
ed into  the  provinces  of  Antioquia  and  Popayan,  and  Morillo, 
with  the  principal  division  of  his  army,  proceeded  up  the  river 
Magdalena.  He  followed  up  the  river  nearly  to  Sanbarto- 
lome,  where  he  divided  his  forces,  taking  himself  the  road  to- 
wards Ocana  and  Sangil,  in  the  province  of  Socorro  ;  whilst 
a  part  of  his  troops  continued  up  the  river  as  far  as  the  town 
of  Honda,  the  head  of  boat  navigation. 

Formidable  and  appalling  as  was  this  invasion,  the  congress 
exerted  themselves  to  the  utmost  to  meet  it,  and  defend  the 
country.  The  members  either  joined  the  army,  or  returned  to 
the  provinces  to  rouse  the  people.  The  greatest  efforts  were 
made  to  raise  an  army  such  as  the  crisis  demanded  ;  and  the 


96  HISTORY    OP    THE 

government  was  greatly  aided  by  the  emigrants  from  Venezu- 
ela, among  whom  were  many  experienced  officers.  But  con- 
sternation prevailed  among  the  people,  which  paralysed  every 
exertion.  The  day  of  triumph  had  arrived  for  the  Spaniards, 
and  the  republicans  could  riot  stop  their  victorious  career. 
The  confederacy,  however,  was  not  overrun  and  subjugated 
without  a  struggle  and  severe  fighting.  The  denies  through 
which  the  enemy  were  obliged  to  pass,  were  fortified,  and  many 
of  the  towns  put  in  a  state  of  defence,  which  were  not  over- 
come by  the  royalists  without  many  bloody  conflicts.  At  Za- 
ragoza  and  Remedies  the  patriots  made  a  resolute  defence, 
and  in  the  attack  on  the  latter  place,  they  repulsed  the  enemy, 
and  obtained  considerable  advantages,  in  most  of  the  skir- 
mishes .nd  actions,  however,  which  occurred,  the  advantage 
was  on  the  part  of  the  royalists.  At  length  the  hard-fought 
and  sanguinary  battle  of  Cachira,  in  which  the  best  troops  and 
most  of  the  officers  of  the  confederate  army  fell,  decided  the 
fate  of  New  Granada.  The  congress  immediately  separated, 
and  the  remnant  of  the  army  that  survived  the  action,  under 
generals  Cerviez  and  Ricaute,  sought  safety  by  taking  the  road 
to  Los  Llanos..  There  being  no  longer  an  army  to  oppose 
him,  Morillo  entered  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota,  in  the  month. of 
June,  1/816,  where  he  remained  until  November,  carrying  on 
the  work  of  pacification.  Vengeance  now  opened  her  flood- 
gates, and  the  blood  of  the  patriots  flowed  as  freely  and  pro- 
fusely as  the  waters  down  the  Andes.  "  More  than  six  hun- 
dred persons,"  says  an  authentic  work,  "  of  those  who  had 
composed  the  congress  and  the  provincial  governments,  as 
well  as  the  chiefs  of  the  independent  army,  were  shot,  hang- 
ed, or  exiled  ;  and  the  prisons  remained  full  of  others  who 
were  yet  waiting  their  fate.  Among  those  executed  were  the 
botanists,  Don  J.  Caldas  and  Don  J,  Lozano,  who  had  been  or- 
dered by  the  congress  of  New  Granada  to  publish  the  works 
of  Dr.  Mutis;  Don  J.  M.  Cabal,  a  distinguished  chemist  ; 
Don  C.  Torres,  a  man  distinguished  for  his  learning ;  Don 
J.  G.  Gutierrez  Moreno,  and  Don  M.  R.  Torices,  both  well 
known  for  having  teen  entirely  devoted  to  the  cause  of  their 
country  ;  Don  Antonio  Maria  Palacio-faxar,  Don  J.  M.  Guti- 
errez, Don  Miguel  Pombo,  D.  F.  Ulloa,  and  many  other  learn- 
ed and  valuable  characters.  The  wives  of  persons  executed, 
or  exiled  by  Morillo,  were  themselves  exiled  too.'' 

What  but  the  outstretched  arm  of  exasperated  despotism, 
could  produce  such  a  picture  of  cruelty,  suffering,  and  blood- 
shed ;  such  waste  of  life  ,  such  accumulated  misery  ?  Surely, 
tyranny,  this  is  thy  own  work !  Well  might  the  author  of 
such  horrid  deeds  conclude,  that  "  a  military  government  is 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA.  97 

the  worst  of  any  known  form  ;  that  it  is  the  most  tyrannical 
and  destructive ;"  and,  after  viewing  the  works  of  his  own 
hands,  with  truth  might  he  speak  of  America,  as  a  country 
"  in  which  all  was  war,  desolation  and  horror."*  If  any  thing 
could  aggravate  these  enormities,  it  would  be  the  considera- 
tion, that  they  were  committed  against  a  people  who,  Morillo, 
himself,  says,  were  timid^  and  would  not  have  made  much  re- 
sistance, had  not  the  insurgents  from  Venezuela  come  to  en- 
courage and  assist  them.  "  In  Santa  Fe,"  says  Morillo  in  a 
letter  to  the  Spanish  minister  of  war,  which  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  patriots,  "  there  are  but  few  blacks  and  mulattoes  ;  in 
Venezuela  a  considerable  part  of  the  white  population  has 
perished  in  the  revolution.  The  inhabitants  of  Santa  Fe  are 
timid  ;  those  of  Venezuela,  bold  and  sanguinary.  In  Santa 
Fe  much  has  been  published  during  the  revolution,  and  the 
learned  have  ruled  all  with  their  pens  ;  but  in  Caraccas  they 
displayed  earlier  the  naked  sword.  From  this  dissimilarity  of 
character  arises  the  different  opposition  we  have  met  with  : 
but  in  their  dissimulation  and  perfidy,  the  people  in  all  the 
provinces  resemble  each  other.  Probably,  in  this  viceroyalty, 
the  inhabitants  would  not  have  opposed  so  firmly  the  king's 
troops,  had  not  many  from  Venezuela  come  to  support  them. 
It  was  spurred  on  by  them,  that  Carthagena  resisted  so  strenu- 
ously. The  division  of  the  army  that  attacked  Zaragoza  and 
Remedies  has  opposed  many  troops  disciplined  by  these  insur- 
gents. The  government  of  Antioquia  has  already  twice  pro- 
claimed la  guerra  muene,  and  has  skilfully  fortified  the  defiles 
of  the  province  by  engineers  from  Venezuela.  It  was  by  the 
activity  of  the  same  insurgents  that  Santa  Fe,  was  obliged  to 
submit  to  the  congress,  and  received  their  sanguinary  ideas. 
All  is  effected  by  the  rebels  from  Venezuela.  They  are  like 
ferocious  beasts  when  they  fight  in  their  own  country  ;  and  if 
they  get  able  commanders,  it  will  require  many  years  to  sub- 
due them,  and  even  then  it  will  be  done  &t  the  expense  of 
much  blood,  and  considerable  sums  of  money." 

Yet  the  man  wiio  could  commit  such  horrid  outrages  as 
these,  against  a  "  timid"  people,  who  were  influenced  by  the 
pens  of  their  learned  men,  talks  about  his  having  "  displayed 
that  clemency,  so  much  recommended  by  the  king,  which  was 
unbounded." 

The  success  of  the  patriots  in  Venezuela,  induced  Morillo 
to  leave  Santa  Fe,  at  the  head  of  two  thousand  men,  in 
November,  1816,  to  re-enforce  the  royalist  troops  at  Caraccas. 

*  Extract  from  Morillo's  Letter  to  the  minister  of  war  in  Spain, 
found  on  board  of  the  schooner  La  Leon,  captured  by  the  privateer, 
The  Congress,  from  Buenos  Ayres.  , 


98  HISTORY    OP   THE 

He  was  attacked  on  his  way  by  the  patriot  general  Paez,  near 
San  Fernando  de  Apure,  with  success  and  advantage  on  the 
part  of  the  Independents.  During  the  months  of  February 
and  March,  of  1817,  the  patriots  kept  possession  of  the  town 
of  Barcelona,  which  was  the  only  important  place  held  by 
them  in  Venezuela  ;  although  they  had  several  guerrilla  corps 
scattered  over  the  interior. — And  their  flotilla  under  Brion 
commanded  the  sea  coast,  which  enabled  them  to  declare  the 
whole  coast  of  Venezuela  in  a  state  of  blockade.  Bolivar 
having  advanced  with  a  considerable  part  of  his  troops  into 
the  interior,  the  royalists  availing  themselves  of  this  circum- 
stance, made  another  attempt  against  the  town  of  Barcelona, 
and  after  besieging  it  for  some  time,  finally  succeeded  in  ta- 
king it  by  assault  on  the  7th  of  April.  In  the  month  of  May, 
the  royal  troops  in  Venezuela  were  re-enforced  by  sixteen 
hundred  men  from  Spain. 

The  loss  of  Barcelona  was  compensated  by  the  success  of 
the  patriots  under  general  Piar,  in  Guiana,  who  defeated  the 
enemy  at  a  place  called  Missions,  about  one  hundred  miles  be- 
low Angostura,  ana  this  victory  enabled  Piar  to  march  against 
the  town  of  Angostura,  the  capital  of  Guiana,  and  to  lay  siege 
to  it.  Bolivar,  the  commander  in  chief,  who  had  marched  to- 
wards the  South,  soon  after  reached  Angostura,  and  joining 
Piar,  assumed  the  command.  The  town  was  now  closely  in- 
vested both  by  sea  and  land,  by  the  aid  of  the  naval  force  un- 
der Brion  ;  and  the  siege  carried  on  with  vigour  and  activity. 
The  flotilla  cutting  off  all  intercourse  by  water,  and  intercep- 
ting all  supplies,  the  town  was  compelled  to  capitulate  in  the 
month  of  AugustJ  and  the  province  of  Guiana,  sharing  the  fate 
of  its  capital,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  patriots.  At  a  time 
when  the  cause  of  the  revolution,  was  in  so  low  a  condition, 
and  regarded  abroad  as  annihilated,  and  at  home  as  almost  en- 
tirely hopeless,  the  conquest  of  Guiana,  was  an  important  ac- 
quisition, and  gave  a  favourable  impulse  to  the  war.  It  added 
greatly  to  the  resources  and  means  of  the  patriots  for  carry- 
ing on  hostilities  ;  and  what  perhaps  was  equally  important, 
the  possession  of  the  immense  plains  of  the  great  valley  of 
the  Orinoco,  uncovered  a  long  line  of  frontier,  and  enabled  the 
patriots  not  only  to  cut  off  ihe  supplies  which  the  royalists 
were  accustomed  to  receive  from  that  quarter,  but  to  make 
constant  inroads  into  the  territory  in  the  occupation  of  the  en- 
emy, and  to  destroy  his  small  detachments  stationed  along  the 
line  of  the  frontier.  The  possession  of  Guiana,  also  afforded 
access  to  the  sea  which  not  only  opened  to  the  patriots  a  com- 
munication with  the  Island  of  Margarita,  their  naval  rendez- 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA  99 

vous,  but  likewise  enabled  them  to  receive  from  the  West  In- 
dies and  elsewhere,  military  supplies. 

Whilst  the  republicans  were  thus  strengthening  themselves, 
by  the  occoupation  of  Guiana,  the  royalists  were  engaged  in 
an  unsuccessful  expedition  against  the  Island  of  Margarita, 
which,  since  its  emancipation  in  1816,  by  the  efforts  of  gener- 
al Arismendi  and  its  heroic  inhabitants,  had  been  the  principal 
naval  station  of  the  patriots. 

The  congress  of  Venezuela  which  had  been  re-established 
by  Bolivar,  on  the  8th  of  May,  18  1 7,  in  the  city  of  San  Felipe 
de  Cariaco,  in  Cumana,  and  which  on  the  fall  of  that  place, 
had  taken  refuge  in  Margarita,  after  remaining  there  twelve 
days  only,  was  obliged  again  to  seek  safety  by  retiring  on 
board  the  patriot  flotilla,  in  consequence  of  the  threatened  in- 
vasion of  the  Island.*  In  the  month  of  June,  the  royalists  ap- 
peared before  Margarita,  with  a  squadron  consisting  of  two 
corvettes  and  five  brigs  ;  and  on  the  14th  of  July,  1817,  gen- 
eral Morillo  arrived  with  a  formidable  re-enforcement,  con- 
sisting of  3,500  troops,  and  an  additional  naval  force.  He  im- 
mediately stormed  Pampatar,  the  principal  fert  and  fortress  of 
the  Island,  which  he  reduced,  and  of  which  he  possessed  him- 
self, after  a  most  determined  and  desperate  resistance.  Mo- 
rillo now  supposed  that  the  principal  obstacle  to  the  conquest 
of  the  Island  was  overcome,  and  being  exasperated  against 
the  inhabitants,  in  consequence  of  their  having  been  the  first 
to  raise  the  Republican  standard,  after  his  conquest  of  ail  Ven- 
ezuela in  1815,  he  resolved  to  make  an  example  of  this  de.- 
voted  island,  and  to  exterminate  all  the  inhabitants  who  made 
any  resistance.  There  were  but  few  troops  on  the  Island,  and 
general  Morillo  possessed  a  numerous  and  veteran  army,  ap- 
parently sufficient  to  crush  in  a  moment  all  resistance.  Never 
was  the  remark  more  fully,  illustrated  than  on  this  occasion, 
that  in  a  contest  against  liberty,  the  inhabitants  all  become 
soldiers,  and  that  not  only  the  armies  but  the  whole  population 
must  be  overcome,  before  a  conquest  can  be  obtained.  The 
entire  population  of  the  island  of  Margarita,  was  but  about 

*  This  although  called  the  supreme  congress,  was  only  a  junta  or 
provisional  government  established  by  general  Marino,  second  in 
command,  by  the  directions  of  Bolivar.  No  election  of  deputies 
took  place,  nor  had  any  election  been  held  since  the  overthrow  of  the 
first  congress,  in  1812.  This  provisional  congress  consisted  of  the 
following  persons,  most  of  whom  had  been  members  of  the  first  con- 
gress :  Admiral  Brion,  J.  C.  Madariga,  A.  Zea,  J.  X.  Mays,  presi- 
dent of  the  former  executive,  F.  X.  de  Alcala,  D.  Valenilla,  D.  A. 
Alcala,  M.  Ysalia,  F.  de  Paula  Naval,  D.  B.  Urbanesa  and  M. 
Maneyro. — See  documents  communicated  to  the  president  of  the  United 
States  in  1811. 


100  HISTORY    OP    THE 

20,000  ;  yet  such  was  their  truly  Spartan  heroism,  that  if  they 
could  not  say  with  that  ancient  city,  that  they  never  saw  the 
smoke  of  an  enemy's  camp  ;  like  its  renowned  citizens,  they 
\vere  resolved  that  the  enemy  should  enter  their  capital  only, 
by  passing  over  the  dead  bodies  of  its  inhabitants.  They  had 
determined  to  defend  the  island  or  perish  in  the  attempt,  and 
their  desperate  bravery,  firmness  and  perseverance,  complete- 
ly baffled  all  the  efforts  of  a  powerful  and  veteran  aimy,  led  on 
by  an  able  and  experienced  general.  After  fighting  five  bat- 
tles, and  approaching  in  different  directions  nearly  to  Assump- 
tion, the  capital  of  the  island,  marking  his  progress  every 
where,  with  the  most  inhuman  butcheries,  and  reducing  the 
island  nearly  to  a  state  of  desolation,  the  blood-thirsty  Moril- 
lo  was  compelled,  reluctantly  to  retire,  with  the  loss  of  1000 
of  his  troops,  and  to  abandon  the  object  of  his  expedition. — 
This  heroic  and  successful  defence  has  not  received  the  no- 
tice it  is  entitled  to  ;  it  is  scarcely  surpassed  by  any  examples 
in  history,  and  the  bravery,  firmness,  and  self-devotion  of  the 
inhabitants,  is  worthy  of  the  highest  admiration. 


REVOLUTION    IN   COLOMBIA,  101 


CHAPTER  YI. 

Defection  of  Piar — Bolivar  re-elected  governor  of  Venezuela— 
attempts  of  the  patriots  to  obtain  foreign  aid — they  receive  as- 
sistance from  Great  Britain — Bolivar 's  plan  for  emancipating 
New  Granada — Congress  installed  at  Angostura — expedition 
for  the  liberation  of  New  Granada — incredible  difficulties  if, 
lias  to  encounter — its  success — battle  of  Boyaca — Bolivar  en- 
ters Santa  Fe  de  Bogota — establishes  a  provisional  govern- 
ment for  New  Granada — he  returns  to  Angostura — installa- 
tion of  the  Congress — his  speech — union  of  Venezuela  and 
New  Granada — defeat  of  M'Gregor — success  of  the  revolution 
—its  influence  abroad — preparations  for  the  approaching  cam- 
paign— it  opens  by  the  capture  of  Rio  de  let  Hacha. 

IN  the  month  of  October,  1817,  a  most  alarming  conspiracy, 
vvas  discovered,  headed  by  general  Piar,  which  threatened  to 
blast  the  hopes  of  the  patriots,  and  ruin  the  cause  of  the  revo*. 
lution.  General  Piar  had  fought  bravely  and  rendered  im- 
portant services  to  the  republic,  particularly  in  the  libera- 
tion of  Guiana,  and  he  had  been  rewarded  by  the  highest 
rank  in  the  army,  and  even  the  second  post  in  the  republic, 
then  vacated  by  the  separation  of  general  Marino,  was  pro 
posed  to  be  conferred  on  him.*  But  intoxicated  with  suc- 
cess and  the  favours  of  fortune,  his  boundless  ambition,  nof 
satisfied  with  these  honours,  aimed  at  the  chief  command. 
To  attain  this  object,  he  had  formed  an  atrocious  plot,  involv- 
ing not  only  a  civil  war,  but  the  sacrifice  of  his  companions 
in  arms. 

This  unfortunate  victim  of  ambition,  was  tried  by  a  council 
df  war,  and  sentenced  to  be  executed,  the  16th  of  October, 
1817.  During  this  month,  the  patriots  defeated  the  Spaniards 
in  Pamplona,  and  liberated  that  province.  On  the  llth  oi 
November,  the  same  year,  the  supreme  congress  of  Venezue- 
la, was  organized  at  Angostura,  and  general  Bolivar,  was  re 
elected  president  of  the  republic.  The  close  of  the  year 
found  the  affairs  of  the  patriots  in  a  comparatively  prosperous 
Condition,  and  hope  once  more  scattered  light  in  the  path  df 

*  See  Bolivar's  proclamation  of  17th  Oct.  1817. 

bVot.  II.  27 

' 


102  HISTORY  OF  THE 

independence  and  liberty.  The  arms  of  the  republic  for  the 
last  six  months,  had  been  crowned  with  signal  success  ;  in  ad- 
dition to  Guiana  and  the  plains,  they  had  liberated  the  provin- 
ces of  Casanare,  Barinas,  Pamplona,  and  the  interior  of  Cu- 
mana,  Barcelona,  and  Caraccas.  The  possession  of  the  vast 
plains  of  the  Orinoco,  was  of  the  greatest  advantage  in  supply- 
ing the  patriots  with  cattle  and  horses  for  the  army,  and  at 
the  same  time  deprived  the  enemy  of  these  resources  ;  it  also 
laid  open  an  extensive  frontier,  and  enabled  their  guerilla  par- 
ties to  annoy  the  enemy  by  a  predatory  warfare  along  the 
whole  line  of  this  frontier,  and  facilitated  the  fitting  out  of  for- 
midable expeditions  against  the  enemy's  posts. 

Availing  himself  of  these  advantages,  great  exertions  were 
iiow  made  by  Bolivar,  aided  by  the  congress,  to  open  the  cam- 
paign the  ensuing  year  with  an  imposing  force. — His  first  ob* 
ject  was  to  wrest  from  the  enemy  one  of  his  principal  posts, 
called  San  Fernando  de  Apure  ;  for  which  purpose  he  des- 
patched an  expedition  by  water,  consisting  of  thirty  gun-boats, 
and  marched  himself  to  form  a  junction  with  general  Paez, 
who  was  in  that  quarter.  Paez  was  a  distinguished  patriot 
chief,  and  an  able  commander  of  cavalry,  who  had  already 
liberated  an  extensive  district  of  the  country,  from  the  Span- 
ish domination,  and  raised  numerous  corps  of  cavalry,  for  the 
service  of  the  republic. — The  united  forces  of  Bolivar  and 
Paez,  were  successful  in  their  first  operations,  and  they  pene- 
trated into  the  interior  beyond  Calaboza,  driving  the  enemy 
before  them,  and  in  some  instances  destroying  their  detach- 
ments. But  after  various  sanguinary  conflicts,  many  of  them 
sharp  and  obstinate,  and  which  were  attended  with  alternate 
success,  no  important  advantages  were  gained  by  the  patriots, 
and  Bolivar  was  obliged  to  relinquish  the  object  of  liberating. 
Venezuela  this  season,  and  retire  to  Guiana. 

Although  the  republicans  made  little  or  no  progress  this 
year,  in  rescuing  from  the  Spaniards  that  part  of  Venezuela 
which  they  held,  yet  the  campaign  was  by  no  means  lost,  as  it 
had  changed  the  order  of  operations  and  obliged  the  royalists 
to  act  wholly  on  the  defensive.  There  is  a  negative,  as  well 
as  positive  success  in  war  ;  and  not  to  be  vanquished,  is  some- 
times almost  equivalent  to  victory.  Even  victory,  in  some 
cases,  is  attended  with  the  ultimate,  if  not  the  immediate  con- 
sequence of  defeat.  It  was  no  small  success  for  the  patriots, 
most  of  their  forces  consisting  of  raw  troops,  to  be  able  to 
maintain  the  field,  and  to  contend  with  advantage  and  often 
with  success,  with  the  veteran  troops  of  Spain,  and  to  arrest 
the  successful  career  of  the  enemy. 

Every  conflict,  was  improving  their  knowledge  in  the  pr£c 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA,  103 

tice  of  war,  and  diminishing  the  advantages  of  the  royalists, 
in  military  experience  and  discipline  ;  and  when  the  sacrifi- 
ces attending  this  acquisition,  were  nearly  equal,  the  patriots 
were  relatively  great  gainers,  as  their  losses  could  be  easily 
supplied,  while  the  losses  of  the  royalists,  were  nearly  irrepar- 
able. The  operations  of  1816  and  17,  which  effectually  check- 
ed the  victorious  career  of  the  barbarous  Morillo,  broke  the  ' 
spell  of  invincibility  which  had  been  attached  to  his  name,  so 
that  it  no  longer  spread  terror  and  dismay  through  the  ranks  of 
the  patriots. 

Hitherto  the  independents  had  sustained  the  unequal  con- 
test unaided  and  alone  ;  the  friends  of  liberty,  both  in  Europe 
and  the  United  States,  had  contented  themselves,  with  ex- 
tending to  them,  their  good  wishes,  a  succour  not  very  effica- 
cious, in  the  struggles  of  war.  The  revolutionists,  at  first 
looked  with  great  expectations  to  Great  Britain,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  disposition  she  had  long  manifested,  to  favour 
the  independence  of  Venezuela,  to  promote  her  commerce 
with  South  America.  After  the  establishment  of  the  junta  ID 
Caraccas  in  1810,  L.  L.  Mendez,  and  Simon  Bolivar  were  ap~ 
pointed  to  solicit  the  countenance  and  support  of  the  British 
government,  in  favour  of  the  revolution.  But  the  policy  of 
the  British  cabinet  was  now  changed,  as  it  was  engaged  in 
supporting  the  Spanish  patriots  in  the  peninsula,  against  the 
French  ;  and  the  only  effect  of  this  mission,  was  a  decree  or- 
dering the  governors  of  their  West  India  islands  to  maintain  a 
strict  neutrality,  in  the  contest  between  Spain  and  her  colo- 
nies, provided  the  new  governments  continueoj  to  act  in  the 
name  of  Ferdinand  the  VII.  This  decree  seemed  to  imply, 
that  if  the  patriots  declared  the  country  independent,  the  Bri- 
tish government  might  favour  Spain  in  reducing  them  to  obedi- 
ence. And  in  a  treaty  concluded  with  Ferdinand,  after  his 
restoration,  it  was  stated  "  the  Prince  Regent  hoped  that  Fer- 
dinand would  restore  peace  in  his  American  colonies  ;  and 
that  entertaining  this  hope,  he  would  engage  not  to  assist  the 
insurgents,  and  would  even  endeavour  to  prevent  his  subjects 
from  affording  them  any  assistance." 

In  the  year  1810,  the  junta  of  Caraccas  deputed  Telesferp 
Orea,  and  John  Vincente  Bolivar,  to  the  government  of  the 
United  States,  and  in  1815,  the  congress  of  New  Granada  sent 
Don  Pedro  Gaul,  now  secretary  of  foreign  affairs  in  Colombia, 
on  a  mission  to  this  country  ;  the  following  year  Bolivar  des- 
patched to  Washington,  Don  Lino  de  Clemente,  and  in  1817. 
the  congress  of  Venezuela,  soon  after  it  was  re-established, 
commissioned  Joseph  Cortes  Madariaga,  as  minister  to  the 
United  States.  The  policy  of  our  government  as  it  regards 


104  HISTORY   OF   THE 

its  foreign  relations,  adopted  by  Washington,  and  followed  by 
all  his  successors,  did  not  admit  of  the  government  affording 
assistance  to  the  patriots,  or  even  of  its  departing  from  a  stricj 
line  of  neutrality,  however  much  the  Executive  might  desire, 
in  common  with  all  our  citizens,  success  to  their  cause. 

It  is  a  curious  fact,  and  strongly  illustrative  of  the  selfish  po 
licy  which  governs  the  conduct  of  nations,  that  France  was 
the  only  power  that  manifested  any  intention  of  assisting  the 
patriots  in  their  arduous  struggle.  In  1812,  after  the  royalists 
had  re-conquered  and  laid  waste  Venezuela,  and  the  same 
dreadful  fate  impended  over  New  Granada,  the  congress  of" 
that  country  resolved  to  apply  for  succour  to  some  foreign 
power.  It  was  in  vain  to  apply  to  England  ;  little  hope  re 
mained  of  assistance  from  the  United  States,  and  France,  un- 
der the  despotism  of  Bonaparte,  was  the  only  power  of  which 
there  was  any  prospect  of  obtaining  assistance  to  the  sacred 
cause  of  liberty  and  independence.  It  was  determined,  how- 
ever, that  application  should  be  renewed  to  the  United  States, 
arid  if  unsuccessful,  then  to  be  made  to  Bonaparte,  who  had 
twice  declared  that  he  would  assist  the  new  world  in  obtaining 
their  independence.  Accordingly,  Don  M.  Placio  Faxar  wae 
sent  on  a  double  mission  to  \\fashington.  Having  made  known 
the  object  of  his  mission  to  Mr.  Madison,  and  informed  him 
that  the  people  of  New  Granada  were  unable,  without  assist- 
ance, to  support  the  contest  necessary  to  maintain  their  free 
(lorn,  he  was  answered  by  the  president,  that,  "  though  the 
United  States  were  not  in  alliance,  they  were  at  peace  with 
Spain,  and  could  not,  therefore,  assist  the  independents  ;  stilK 
as  inhabitants  of  the  same  continent,  they  wished  well  to  their 
exertions."  The  commissioner  then  addressed  himself  to  M, 
Serrurier,  the  French  minister,  resident  at  Washington,  who 
encouraged  him  to  apply  to  Napoleon,  which  he  did,  with  every 
prospect  of  success.  The  arrangements  were  actually  making 
to  give  effective  assistance  to  the  South  Americans,  when  the 
battle  of  Leipsic  took  place,  which  threatened  the  invasion  of 
France,  and  left  the  Emperor  no  opportunity  to  attend  to  any 
thing,  but  the  maintenance  of  his  own  power.* 

During  nine  years,  the  patriots  of  Venezuela  and  New  Gra- 
nada, unaided  and  alone,  without  allies  and  without  assistance, 
sustained  the  most  desperate  and  sanguinary  struggle  in  de- 
fence of  their  independence,  with  a  firmness  and  persever- 
ance almost  unexampled,  under  sufferings  and  sacrifices  truly 
incredible  ;  a  large  proportion  of  the  white  population  in  Ven- 
ezuela having  been  destroyed,  and  both  countries  devastated 

•> 
*  Outline  of  the  Revolution  of  South  America, 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA.  1(}S 

with  fire  and  sword.  But  the  time  had  now  arrived,  that  the 
South  American  patriots  were  to  receive  a  more  efficient  sup- 
port  from  abroad  than  the  sympathies  of  the  friends  of  liberty. 
Their  sufferings  and  sacrifices  ;  their  bravery,  firmness,  and 
perseverance;  their  patriotic  devotion  to  the  sacred  cause  of 
liberty,  under  the  most  appalling  circumstances,  awakened  the 
attention  of  the  world,  and  inspired  the  confidence,  and  exci- 
ted the  highest  admiration  of  the  friends  of  liberty  in  the  Uni- 
ted States  and  in  Europe,  particularly  in  the  British  Isles. 
The  cries  of  liberty,  the  voice  of  struggling  freedom,  were 
heard  across  the  waters,  and  excited  the  most  lively  sympathy 
in  kindred  breasts.*  Notwithstanding  the  policy  of  the  gov- 
ernment founded  on  the  dictates  of  prudence  and  caution,  the 
people  of  the  United  States  almost  universally  felt  a  deep  and 
lively  interest  in  the  success  of  their  brethren  in  South  Amer- 
ica, engaged  in  the  same  desperate  struggle  for  liberty  as  they 
themselves  had  gone  through  ;  not,  however,  without  foreign 
succour,  which  the  South  Americans  had  not  hitherto  been  so 
fortunate  as  to  obtain.  Near  the  close  of  the  year  1817,  the 
president  of  the  United  States  appointed  three  commissioners, 
Messrs.  Rodney,  Bland,  and  Graham,  to  visit  the  independent 
states  in  South  America  to  ascertain  their  political  condition, 
and  their  means  and  prospects  of  securing  their  independence  : 
and  early  in  1818,  the  legislature  of  Kentucky  adopted  reso- 
lutions, expressing  their  sense  of  the  propriety  and  expedien- 
cy of  the  national  government,  acknowledging  the  independ- 
ence of  the  South  American  republics.  These  resolutions. 

*  The  history  of  the  revolution  in  South  America  abounds,  Dot 
only  in  deeds  of  desperate  bravery,  but  aifords  instances  of  the  truly 
Roman  spirit  of  liberty  and  of  self  devotion.  In  1817,  Morillo,  hav- 
ing got  into  his  power  a  son  of  the  patriot  general  Zaraza,  conferred 
on  him  the  commission  of  ensign,  by  which  means  he  was  in  hopes 
to  induce  the  patriot  chief  to  embrace  the  advantages  offered  in  the 
Indultp,  or  act  of  oblivion,  and  join  tfye  royal  standard  Accordingly, 
Morillo  sent  a  priest  of  the  name  of  Sutil,  accompanied  by  the  young" 
Zaraza,  to  the  patriot  general,  who  was  informed,  by  the  clerical 
messenger,  that  Morillo  would  make  him  a  brigadier,  if  he  would 
go  over  with  his  troops  to  the  royal  standard.  To  this  proposal  Za- 
raza made  the  following  noble  reply  :  k*  Not  until  I  behold  my  wife 
and  unfortunate  children,  cruelly  murdered  by  the  legions  of  general 
Morillo,  restored  to  life  again,  shall  I  desist  from  the  noble  underta 
king  and  glorious  strife  in  which  I  am  now  engaged  against  the  ty- 
rants of  their  country,  and  the  assassins  of  their  innocent  posterity.'' 
Having  said  these  words,  he  handed  a  sword  to  his  son,  who,  scorn- 
ing a  rank  which  was  given  him  merely  for  the  sake  of  necessity  or 
convenience,  grasped  the  weapon  ;  when  his  father  added,  "  witb 
this,  you  must  defend  the  rights  of  your  country,  and  avetfge  tlte 
dfestth  of  your  mother  and  brethren." 

27* 


106  HISTORY    OF    THE 

probably,  emanated  from  the  influence  of  Mr.  Clay,  now  sec 
sretary  of  state,  who,  from  the  first,  has  been  a  zealous  and 
steadfast  friend  of  the  South  American  patriots.  Some  indi- 
viduals from  the  United  States  joined  the  patriots,  and  some- 
supplies  of  ammunition  and  muskets  were  furnished  them  from 
this  country. 

It  was  from  the  British  Isles,  however,  that  they  received 
the  greatest  assistance,  both  in  men  and  munitions  of  war. 
Both  in  England  and  Ireland,  a  number  of  patriotic  individuals 
espoused  the  cause  of  the  South  American  patriots  with  zeal 
and  disinterested  devotion.  Such  was  the  success  of  the  exer- 
tions of  these  disinterested  patriots  in  England  and  Ireland, 
that,  in  the  summer  of  1818,  and  early  in  the  year  of  1819r 
not  only  large  supplies  of  arms  and  munitions  of  war  were 
sent  to  the  Orinoco,  but  a  considerable  auxiliary  force,  con- 
sisting of  several  hundred  volunteers,  arrived  at  the  island  of" 
Margarita,  from  whence  they  were  forwarded  to  the  Orinoco 
in  season  for  the  next  campaign.  A  number  of  experienced 
English  and  Irish  officers  either  accompanied  or  followed  these 
troops,  which  was  an  invaluable  acquisition  to  the  patriots ; 
being  extremely  useful  in  imparting  military  knowledge  and 
skill  to  the  officers,  and  discipline  to  the  troops,  in  the  patriot 
service.  The  troops,  too,  were  veteran  soldiers,  who  had 
seen  much  service  ;  and  the  foreign  officers  and  soldiers  prob- 
ably contributed,  in  no  small  degree,  to  the  glorious  successes 
of  the  ensuing  campaign. 

The  indefatigable  Bolivar,  whose  extraordinary  exertions 
for  the  emancipation  of  his  country,  have,  by  the  unanimous 
voice  of  America  and  Europe,  justly  entitled  him  to  the  illus- 
trious appellation  of  the  Washington  of  South  America,  now 
conceived  the  bold  project  of  emancipating  New7  Granada, 
when  Morillo  supposed  that  the  whole  efforts  of  the  patriot* 
would  be  required  in  Venezuela.  In  opening  a  campaign  in 
Mew  Granada,  numerous  difficulties  were  to  be  overcome  ; 
unexplored  tracts  of  wilderness  were  to  be  traversed  ;  rapid 
and  dangerous  rivers,  swelled  into  lakes  by  the  rains,  were  to 
be  crossed,  and  mountains,  apparently  inaccessible,  to  be 
passed  ;  and  with  an  army  hastily  collected,  a  considerable 
part  of  which  were  destitute  of  discipline,  and  unaccustomed 
to  the  hardships  of  service  ;  badly  equipped  and  clothed,  and 
scantily  provided  with  the  means  of  subsistence.  Formidable 
as  were  these  difficulties,  they  did  not  surpass  the  resolution 
of  the  chief  of  the  republic,  or  shake  the  firmness  of  his  pur- 
pose. The  liberation  of  New  Granada,  whether  regarded 
with  reference  to  the  relief  it  would  afford  to  the  oppressed 
inhabitants,  the  importance  of  the  acquisition,  or  the  influence 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA.  107 

it  would  have  on  the  revolutionary  cause,  was  an  object  de- 
manding the  utmost  efforts  of  the  republic.  The  cause  of 
Venezuela  and  New  Granada  were  essentially  identified,  and 
reciprocally  influenced  each  other.  Animated  by  the  magni- 
tude, and  even  by  the  difficulties  of  the  enterprize,  Bolivar 
made  every  possible  effort  his  situation  and  resources  would 
admit  of,  in  preparing  for  this  important  campaign. 

But  the  preparations  for  the  approaching  campaign  did  not 
engross  the  entire  attention  of  Bolivar,  who  was  not  only  the 
liberator,  but  the  legislator  of  his  country  ;  not  only  the  com- 
mander in  chief  of  her  armies,  but  the  head  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  the  founder  of  her  institutions.  The  congress  of 
Venezuela  was  installed  at  Angostura  in  February  or  March. 
1819,  to  deliberate  on  the  form  of  a  constitution  for  the  re- 
public. The  session  was  opened  by  a  long  and  elaborate 
speech  by  the  president,  exhibiting  his  views  of  the  most  suit- 
able government  for  Venezuela,  under  existing  circumstances. 
This  speech  comprises  twenty-five  printed  folio  pages,  and 
evinces  a  profound  acquaintance  with  the  history,  principles, 
and  practical  operations  of  various  forms  of  government,  and 
a  heart  warmed  with  the  holy  fire  of  patriotism,  deeply  anx- 
ious to  secure  to  his  country  wise  institutions,  affording  the 
surest  pledge  of  preserving  its  liberty,  and  securing  its  pros- 
perity and  happiness.  It  concludes  in  the  following  glowing 
language  : — 

"  Legislators  !  Condescend  to  receive,  with  indulgence,  the 
declaration  of  my  political  creed,  the  highest  wishes  of  my 
heart,  and  earnest  petition,  which,  in  the  name  of  the  people, 
I  have  dared  to  address  you. 

"  Vouchsafe  to  grant  to  Venezuela  a  government  purely  pop- 
ular, purely  just,  and  purely  moral,  which  will  enchain  oppres- 
sion, anarchy,  and  crime — a  government  which  will  cause  in- 
nocency,  philanthropy,  and  peace  to  reign — a  government 
which,  under  the  dominion  of  inexorable  laws,  will  cause 
"  equality  and  liberty  to  triumph. 

"  Gentlemen  !  Commence  your  duties.  I  have  finished 
mine. 

"  The  congress  of  the  republic  of  Venezuela  is  installed. 
In  it,  from  this  moment,  is  centered  the  national  sovereignty. 
We  all  owe  to  it  obedience  and  fidelity.  My  sword,  and  those 
of  my  fellows  in  arms,  will  maintain  its  august  authority." 

Having  discharged  this  responsible  duty,  respecting  the  es  • 
tablishment  of  a  system  of  government  for  the  republic,  Boli- 
var directed  his  whole  attention  to  preparations  for  the  libera- 
tion of  New  Granada.  He  organized  a  select  corps  compo- 
sed of  Irish  and  English  foreign  auxiliaries,  and  some  of  hfe 


108  HISTORY    OF    THE 

best  troops.  General  Paez,  whose  name  had  become  a  terror 
to  the  royalists,  was  to  remain  behind,  entrusted  with  the  im- 
portant duty  of  watching  the  motions  of  Morillo,  and  defend- 
ing Guiana  and  the  territories  of  Venezuela  in  the  possession 
of  the  republicans.  Every  thing  being  in  readiness,  taking 
advantage  of  the  rainy  season,  when  the  royalists  had  aban- 
doned the  plains,  and  were  reposing  in  security,  the  army 
commenced  its  march  in  the  month  of  April,  on  an  enterprize, 
the  importance  of  which  was  only  surpassed  by  its  intrinsic 
difficulties.  The  constancy  and  fortitude  of  this  army,  in  sus- 
taining the  fatigues  and  hardships  which  it  had  to  endure,  and 
surmounting  the  numerous  obstacles  that  opposed  its  progress, 
will  not  surfer  from  a  comparison  with  the  army  with  which 
the  Garthagenian  hero  conquered  the  Alps.  "  The  rainy  sea- 
son," says  Bolivar,  k'  had  commenced,  and  the  plains  present- 
ed only  vast  sheets  of  inundations  ;  the  frozen  summits  of  the 
Andes  lay  in  our  route  ;  the  sudden  mutations  of  adverse  cli- 
mates were  to  be  encountered  ;  a  well  disciplined  army,  three 
times  our'  own  number,  were  in  front  of  us,  and  occupying  all 
the  military  positions  of  those  regions." 

On  the  arrival  of  the  army  in  the  province  of  Casanare,  it 
formed  a  junction  with  the  troops  of  that  province  under  the 
command  of  general  Santander  ;  on  which  occasion  Bolivar 
issued  a  proclamation  to  the  inhabitants  of  New  Granada,  in 
which  he  says,  that  "  the  groans  which  Spanish  tyranny  ex- 
torted from  you,  have  reached  the  ears  of  your  brethren  in 
Venezuela,  who,  after  having  thrown  off  the  yoke  of  our  com- 
mon oppressors,  wish  to  share  their  liberty  with  you.  A  Bri- 
tish legion,,  from  more  distant  climes,  has  left  the  glory  of  its 
country  to  acquire  the  renown  of  saviours  of  America  ;  this 
liberating  army  of  friends  and  benefactors  is  now  in  the  bosom 
of  your  country,  and  God,  who  always  protects  suffering  hu- 
manity, will  make  the  arms  .of > your  redeemers  triumphant." 

The  united  armies  were  a  whole  month  in  marching  through 
the  province  of  Casanare,  and  in  overcoming  the  obstacles 
which  every  day  appeared  to  multiply  as  they  advanced.  Tlv  \ 
had  to  cross  a  number  of  navigable  rivers,  which,  at  this  sea- 
son of  the  year,  overflowed  their  banks,  and  inundated  the 
country  and  the  roads  over  the  plains.  It  rained  almost  con- 
stantly day  and  night.  The  roughness  of  the  mountains  ren- 
dered them  almost  inaccessible,  and  in  four  days'  marching 
over  them,  all  the  transports  were  rendered  useless,  and  all 
the  cattle  provided  for  the  army  were  lost.  No  enemy  was 
discovered  until  they  reached  the  river  Guya,  on  the  27th  of 
June,  1819,  when  the  vanguard  of  the  liberating  army  attack- 
ed and  dislodged  a  detachment  of  three  hundred  royafisfs>  oc- 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA.  109 

•oppying  a  position  so  strong,  by  nature,  that  one  hundred  men 
are  sufficient  to  stop  the  passage  of  ten  thousand.*  The  roy* 
alists'  destroying  the  bridge  across  the  river,  prevented  their 
being  pursued,  so  that  the  only  direct  advantage  of  the  victory^ 
was  the  possession  of  the  harbour,  and  the  provisions  left  by 
the  enemy.  But  as  this  was  the  opening  of  the  campaign,  it 
had  a  favourable  influence  on  the  army  after  their  incredible* 
fatigues,  as  the  first  events  are  often  regarded,  in  some  de^ 
gree,  as  presages  of  the  final  result. 

This  affair  was  immediately  followed  by  a  succession  of  the 
most  splendid  victories  the  revolution  affords,  and  which  not 
only  speedily  terminated  the  campaign,  but  decided  the  fate 
of  New  Granada,  and  perhaps  it  is  hardly  too  much  to  say  of 
the  revolution  in  the  whole  of  Spanish  America.  The  first 
action  was  fought  on  the  first  of  July,  in  the  valley  of  Saga- 
moso,  in  the  province  of  Tunja,  between  the  liberating  army 
and  the  main  army  of  the  royalists  of  New  Granada,  command- 
ed by  Bareyro.  The  contest  was  long,  obstinate,  and  con- 
tinued until  ten  o'clock  at  night,  when  the  Spaniards  were 
routed  and  compelled  to  retreat  in  great  disorder,  to  save  them- 
selves from  destruction. 

After  considerable  maneuvering  by  both  the  hostile  armies, 
they  encountered  each  other  again  on  the  25th  of  July,  at  Pan- 
tano  de  Bargas,  near  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Tunja. 
The  action  lasted  for  five  hours,  both  parties  fighting  with  the 
greatest  desperation.  Victory  at  length  declared  for  the  pat- 
riots, and  the  rout  of  the  royalists  was  complete  ;  they  were 
obliged  to  retreat  in  confusion,  leaving  their  artillery,  baggage, 
and  treasures,  on  the  field  of  battle,  with  their  killed  and 
wounded.  The  Spanish  army  retreated  by  the  road  of  Sama- 
ca,  in  the  direction  of  the  capital,  and  were  pursued  and  over 
taken  by  the  liberating  army  on  the  7th  of  August,  at  Boyaca. 
At  day-light  the  advanced  corps  of  the  patriots  discovered  thai 
the  enemy  intended  to  pass  the  bridge  at  Boyaca,  when  Boli- 
var ordered  the  whole  army  under  arms  for  action,  and  to 
inarch  to  the  high  road  to  prevent  the  royalists  from  crossing 
the  bridge,  or  force  them  to  give  battle.  At  two  in  the  after- 
noon, the  enemy's  first  division  reached  the  bridge,  where 
they  saw  the  advance  cavalry  of  the  patriots,  and  supposing  it 
a  reconnoitring  party,  they  attacked  it  to  clear  the  way  for  the 
main  body  of  the  royal  army.  The  divisions  of  the  liberating 
army  quickened  their  march,  and,  to  the  great  surprise  of  the 
royalists,  the  whole  of  its  infantry  appeared  in  a  column  on  a 
height  commanding  a  view  of  their  position.  The  main  body 

*. Despatch  of  Bolivar,  dated  30th  of  June,  1819. 


110  HISTORY    OF    THE 

of  the  enemy  was  stationed  about  three  fourths  of  a  mile  from 
the  bridge.  The  infantry  of  the  liberating  army  came  dowii 
from  the  height,  and,  together  with  the  cavalry,  marched  along 
the  road  to  give  the  enemy  battle  ;  who,  in  the  mean  time 
made  a  movement  by  his  right,  which  was  opposed  by  the 
British  legion.  The  battalions  of  Barcelona,  the  intrepid 
corps  of  Paez,  and  the  squadron  of  cavalry  of  the  upper  plains, 
formed  the  centre  of  the  liberating  army  ;  the  battalion  of  the 
line  of  New  Granada,  the  battalion  of  Cozadores,  and  the 
guards  of  the  rear,  formed  the  left,  and  the  columns  of  Tunja 
and  Socorro  remained  as  a  reserve.  The  enemy  was  formed 
in  a  column  on  a  height,  with  three  pieces  of  artillery  in  the 
centre,  and  two  squadrons  of  cavalry  on  the  flanks,  where  they 
waited  the  attack.  The  patriot  general  Anzoatequi  directed 
the  operations  of  the  centre  and  right,  and  Gen.  Santander  the 
left.  The  troops  of  the  centre  comprising  the  invincible  corps 
of  Paez,  whilst  exposed  to  the  fire  of  a  body  of  the  enerm 
posted  on  their  left  flank,  attacked  with  great  intrepidity  the 
main  body  of  the  royalists.  The  enemy  received  them  with 
firmness,  and  poured  into  them  a  tremendous. fire  ;  but  the  in- 
dependents, regardless  of  this,  by  the  most  daring  and  active 
movements  surrounded  all  the  enemy's  corps,  when  the  cavalry, 
charging  with  great  impetuosity  and  courage,  the  enemy  was 
driven  from  his  posit  on  and  thrown  into  disorder,  which  ren- 
dered all  the  efforts  of  the  Spanish  commander  unavailing. 
The  horse  grenadiers  set  the  first  example  of  flight ;  the  infant- 
ry attempted  to  form  on  another  height,  but  were  assailed  so 
hotly  that  they  were  instantly  routed,  and  being  enclosed  on 
all  sides,  threw  down  their  arms  and  surrendered.  By  an  al- 
most simultaneous  movement,  general  Santander,  who  com- 
manded the  left,  and  who  had  met  with  but  little  resistance 
from  the  enemy's  van,  charged,  passed  the  bridge,  and  com- 
pleted the  victory.  The  conflict  was  short,  but  terrible,  and 
victory  was  not  for  a  moment  doubtful  ;  the  slaughter  was 
great,  and  the  Spanish  army  entirely  annihilated.  General 
Bareyrojthe  commander  in  chief,  Ximines,  the  second  in  com- 
mand, a  great  number  of  field  and  inferior  officers,  and  1600 
men,  were  made  prisoners.  The  spoils  of  the  vanquished, 
which  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  patriots,  were  great,  consisting 
of  artillery,  arms,  ammunition,  horses,  &c.  General  Santan- 
der, with  the  van,  pursued  the  fugitives 'to  Venta  Qucmada, 
and  the  rest  of  the  army  remained  all  night  on  the  field  of  battle. 
The  Spanish  army  consisted  of  above  3,000  men  ;  that  oi" 
Bolivar  of  something  less.* 

*  Official  despatch  of  Bolivar. 


REVOLUTION    IN   COLOIVIBIA.  Ill 

This  great  and  decisive  action,  which  may  be  regarded  as 
holding  that  place  in  the  Colombian  revolution  that  the  victo- 
ry at  Saratoga  did  in  our  own,  gave  the  patriots  the  possession 
oT  Santa  Fe,  the  capital  of  New  Granada,  and  the  neighbour- 
ing provinces.  The  viceroy,  Samano,  immediately  on  obtain- 
ing news  of  the  defeat  of  the  royal  army,  with  a  few  attendants 
left  the  capital,  and  reached  Carthagena  by  way  of  Mompox* 
•where  he  was  defeated,  and  escaped  with  a  handful  of  men  to 
Tericabo,  an  elevated  position  about  twelve  miles  from  Car- 
ihagena.  He  left  all  his  military  stores  at  Santa  Fe,  and  a 
large  sum  in  specie  in  the  treasury  and  mint,  said  to  amount  to 
two  or  three  millions. 

It  is  impossible  for  language  to  describe  the  joy  and  enthu- 
siasm with  which  the  inhabitants  of  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota  re- 
ceived the  victorious  Bolivar,  who  had  generously  come  to 
I  heir  relief  when  hope  had  almost  forsaken  them  ;  he  was  hail- 
od  as  their  deliverer,  their  redeemer  ;  as  the  first  of  patriots 
und  the  greatest  of  heroes,  who  surpassed  the  renowned  Han- 
nibal in  overcoming  the  obstacles  of  nature,  and  the  still  great- 
er Bonaparte,  in  the  rapidity  of  his  movements  and  the  success 
of  his  bold  and  noble  enterprises.  In  seventy-five  days  he 
performed  a  march  of  nearly  one  thousand  miles,  fought  three 
pitched  battles,  and  emancipated  a  nation  struggling  under  the 
weight  of  oppression,  and  whose  wounds,  inflicted  by  the  san- 
guinary Morilio,  were  not  yet  healed. 

Improving  the  advantages  which  fortune  and  his  own  valor 
had  conferred  on  him,  Bolivar  immediately  directed  his  atten- 
tion to  making  the  best  dispositions  of  the  augmented  military 
resources  now  at  his  command.  The  inhabitants  flocked  to 
his  standard,  and  two  armies  were  raised,  organised,  and  put 
in  motion  about  the  20th  of  September  ;  one  for  the  south* 
and  the  other  destined  to  liberate  the  provinces  of  the  north, 
still  in  the  possession  of  the  royalists.  A  provisional  govern- 
ment for  New  Granada  was  also  established,  and  all  the  ne- 
cessary arrangements  made  for  the  security  of  the  country,  in 
which  Bolivar  was  seconded  by  the  inhabitants  ;  and  after  sub- 
mitting to  Samano  proposals  for  an  exchange  of  prisoners,  he 
left  the  capital  of  New  Granada  to  return  to  Angostura,  where 
the  congress  of  Venezuela  was  expected  to  be  in  session.  He 
travelled  with  expedition  corresponding  with  the  celerity  of  his 
movements  when  at  the  head  of  the  army.  From  Pamplona 
to  Angostura,  which  usually  requires  twenty-five  or  thirty  days, 
he  went  in  seventeen,  and  arrived  at  the  latter  place  on  the 
llth  of  December,  1819,  where  he  was  received  with  the 
greatest  demonstrations  of  joy,  no\y  the  liberator  of  New  Gra- 
nada as  well  as  of  Venezuela. 


112  HISTORY    OF  THE 

On  the  14th  of  December  the  congress  was  installed,  cm 
which  occasion  the  president  delivered  a«epeech,  giving  a  brief 
account  of  the  campaign,  the  difficulties  the  army  had  to  en- 
counter from  the  inundations  of  the  plains,  the  roughness  and 
frozen  summits  of  the  mountains,  and  the  superior  force  of 
the  enemy,  which  occupied  all  the  strong  positions  of  the  coun- 
try. But  notwithstanding  these  difficulties,  in  less  than  three 
months  ihis  victorious  army,  besides  overcoming  the  floods  of 
the  plains  and  the  frosts  of  the  Andes,  annihilated  an  army  of 
three  times  their  number,  and  liberated  twelve  provinces  of 
New  Granada.  The  president  does  justice  to  the  inhabitants 
df  New  Granada  :  "It  is  not  alone  to  the  liberating  army  that 
we  are  indebted  for  these  signal  events  ;  the  people  of  New 
Granada  have  shown  themselves  worthy  of  liberty  ;  their  effi*- 
cient  co-operation  retrieved  our  losses  and  augmented  our 
Strength."  He  recommends  the  commemoration  of  these  great 
achievments  of  his  companions  in  arms  ;  and  concludes  by  in- 
forming the  congress  of  the  desire  of  the  people  of  New  Gra- 
nada to  unite  their  destiny  with  Venezuela,  and  his  own  ardent, 
wishes  for  the  union  of  the  two  countries.  "  Yes,  legislators, 
the  unanimous  determination  of  perishing  free,  rather  than  to 
live  slaves,  hath  given  to  the  people  of  New  Granada  a  title 
to  our  admiration  and  respect.  Their  ardent  desire  to  unite 
their  destiny  with  Venezuela  is  not  less  magnanimous.  The 
inhabitants  of  New  Granada  are  intimately  penetrated  with 
the  great  advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  union  of  both 
countries  in  one  republic.  The  re-union  of  Venezuela  and 
New  Granada  have  been  the  unceasing  object  of  my  d  esires, 
from  the  commencement  of  my  military  career.  It  is  also  the 
original  wish  of  the  citizens  of  both  countries,  and  a  certain 
guarantee  of  the  liberties  of  all  South  America. 

"  Legislators — The  time  to  give  a  fixed  and  eternal  basis  to 
our  republic  has  at  length  arrived  ;  it  belongs  to  your  wisdom 
to  decree  this  great  social  act,  and  to  establish  the  principles 
<rf  the  sacred  compact  upon  which  the  republic  was  to  be 
erected.  Proclaim  it  to  the  whole  world,  and  my  services  and 
those  of  my  companions  in  arms  will  be  amply  remunerated, 
and  their  utmost  wishes  accomplished." 

Bolivar  having  closed  his  address,  Mr.  Zea,  the  vice-presi- 
dent, arose  and  replied  : 

"  Among  the  many  glorious  and  illustrious  days  consecra- 
ted by  you  to  the  republic,  none  has  been  more  auspicious 
than  that  of  the  present,  in  which  you  have  laid  at  the  foot  of 
the  national  representatives  the  laurel  wreaths  of  victory,  and 
the  chains  cut  in  pieces  by  your  swords,  which  had  bound  in 
letters  two  millions  of  people."  After  describing  in  glowing 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA.  113 

language  the  obstacles  the  army  had  to  encounter,  on  account 
of  the  rainy  season,  in  passing  the  Andes,  and  from  the  supe- 
rior force  of  the  enemy,  he  says  : — "  But  every  difficulty  dis- 
appeared before  the  courage  and  impetuosity  of  the  soldiers 
of  independence.  Scarcely  can  victory  keep  pace  with  the 
victor,  and  in  less  than  three  months,  the  principal  and  great- 
est part  of  New  Granada  is  liberated,  by  those  troops  whose 
destruction  the  viceroy  of  Santa  Fe,  had  declared,  in  anticipa- 
tion, as  an  inevitable  consequence  of  their  rashness  and  te- 
merity." In  conclusion,  he  adds  his  desires  to  those  of  the 
president  for  the  union  of  the  two  Countries  :  "  Quito,  Santa 
Fe,  and  Venezuela  united  in  one  republic,  who  is  competent 
to  calculate  the  measure  and  magnitude  of  prosperity  which 
belongs  to  such  a  mass  of  physical  and  moral  power.  May 
heaven  bless  this  propitious  union  whose  consolidation  is  the 
first  object  of  all  my  cares,  and  of  the  most  ardent  desires  of 
my  heart." 

On  the  17th  the  congress  passed  what  is  called  the  funda- 
mental law  of  the  republic,  which  unites  Venezuela  and  New 
Granada  into  one  state,  under  the  name  of  the  "  REPUBLIC  OF 
COLOMBIA."  This  act  of  union  declares  that  the  debts  of  the 
two  republics  shall  be  consolidated,  and  remain  the  national 
debt  of  Colombia  ;  that  the  new  republic  shall  be  divided  into 
departments,  over  each  of  which  there  shall  be  a  chief  magis- 
trate, to  be  appointed  by  the  president ;  that  a  city  shall  be 
built,  bearing  the  name  of  Bolivar,  which  shall  be  the  capital 
of  the  republic  ;  that  a  general  Congress  of  Colombia  shall  be 
assembled  at  Rosario  de  Cucuta,  in  January,  1821,  and  that 
the  present  congress  shall  be  dissolved  in  January,  1820  ;  that 
the  general  congress  shall  form  a  constitution  for  the  new  re- 
public, and  decree  the  arms  and  flag  of  Colombia.  It  further 
provides  that  a  commission  of  six  members  should  be  invested 
with  special  powers  during  the  recess  of  congress  ;  that  the 
new  republic  should  be  solemnly  proclaimed  to  the  citizens 
and  the  armies,  with  public  festivals  and  rejoicings  on  the  25th 
of  December,  the  nativity  of  the  Saviour,  and  that  the  anni- 
versary of  this  political  regeneration  shall  be  perpetually  cele- 
brated by  a  national  feast,  wherein  virtue  and  talents  shall  be 
rewarded  as  at  the  Olympic  games  in  ancient  Greece. — This 
fundamental  law  of  union  was  ordered  to  be  recorded  in  the 
archieves  of  the  cabildos  and  municipalities,  and  to  be  promul- 
gated throughout  the  republic. 

This  great  political  measure  being  accomplished,  the  foun- 
der of  the  new  republic  directed  his  attention  to  the  prosecu- 
tion of  the  .war  and  to  preparations  for  an  expulsion  of  the 
enemy  from  it.  The  army  brought  back  from  New  Granada 

VOL.  II.  28 


114  HISTORY  OF    THE 

was  augmented  by  detachments  of  troops,   to  ten  or  twelve 
thousand  men. 

While  the  arms  of  the  patriots  were  crowned  with  such 
signal  success  in  the  interior,  some  disasters  occurred  on 
the  sea  board.  General  M'Gregor  fitted  out  an  expedition, 
with  a  force  of  one  thousand  men,  and  on  the  8th  of  April, 
1819,  attacked  and  captured  Porto  Bello  ;  but  after  posses- 
sing the  place  twenty-one  days,  he  was  attacked  by  the  roy- 
alists under  general  Hore,  and  defeated  with  the  loss  of 
his  entire  force,  except  a  few  attendants  who  escaped  with 
their  commander  by  swimming  to  one  of  their  vessels.  This 
fatal  disaster  did  not  discourage  M'Gregor  from  his  predato- 
ry warfare,  and  about  the  first  of  September,  he  sailed  from 
Aux  Cayes,  with  another  expedition,  with  two  hundred  and 
fifty  men,  and  succeeded  in  taking  Rio  de  la  Hacha,  which 
he  held  five  days,  when  the  Spaniards  rallied,  attacked  the 
assailants,  and  after  a  short  conflict,  M'Gregor,  perceiving 
the  enemy  too  strong  for  him,  fled,  leaving  his  men  to  make 
the  best  shift  they  could  for  themselves  ;  and  finding  that 
they  could  make  no  further  defence,  such  was  their  horror  at 
falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards,  that  they  blew  up  the 
fort,  by  which  most  of  them  fell  the  victims  of  their  own  folly 
and  delusion. 

On  the  20th  of  December,  Bolivar  communicated  to  general 
Santander,  vice-president  of  Cundinamarca,  the  fundamen-; 
tal  flaw,  which  he  desires  him  to  carry  into  effect  ;  and  ob- 
serves, that  "  the  prospects  opened  by  this  ever  memorable 
act  are  as  comprehensive,  as  magnificent ;  freedom,  power, 
grandeur,  and  stability  will  be  secured  by  such  an  union.  By 
the  unanimous  voice  of  the  deputies  of  Venezuela  and  New 
Granada,  the  foundation  has  been  laid,  upon  which  the  public 
happiness  will  be  established  with  solidity  and  durability,  and 
that  character  has  been  designed,  by  which  this  infant  nation 
shall  be  recognized,  and  its  political  relations  established  with 
all  the  world. 

On  receiving  this  despatch,  Santander  assembled  on  the 
12th  of  February,  1820,  the  constituted  authorities  of  the 
new  department  of  Cundinamarca,  and  laid  the  subject  of  the 
union  before  them  with  the  fundamental  law,  who  unanimous- 
ly approved  of  the  union,  and  ordered  a  solemn  publication  of 
it  to  be  made  in  Bogota,  the  capital,  which  was  done  amidst 
the  universal  rejoicings  of  the  people.  In  his  answer  to  the  let* 
ter  of  Bolivar,  general  Santander,  after  informing  him  of  what 
had  taken  place  at  Bogota,  and  the  unanimity  with  which  ten 
provinces  of  New  Granada  had  acceded  to  the  union,  con- 
cludes by  offering  his  congratulations  on  this  auspicious  event 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA.  115 

to  the  illustrious  president.  The  cause  of  South  American 
independence  was  now  gaining  ground  abroad,  as  well  as  at 
home  ;  although  no  power,  as  yet,  acknowledged  its  independ- 
ence, or  directly  or  indirectly  afforded  either  of  the  new  gov- 
ernments any  assistance,  or  even  countenance.  In  his  mes- 
sage to  congress,  in  December,  1819,  president  Monroe  says, 
that  "  the  greatest  care  has  been  taken  to  enforce  the  laws 
intended  to  preserve  an  impartial  neutrality  ;  that  our  ports 
have  been  equally  open  to  both  parties,  and  that  our  citizens 
have  been  equally  restrained  from  interfering  with  either,  to 
the  prejudice  of  the  other."  He  admits  that  the  contest  is  of 
the  highest  interest  to  the  United  States,  but  considers  it  of 
the  greatest  importance  to  our  national  character,  and  the 
morality  of  our  citizens,  that  all  violations  of  our  neutrality 
should  be  prevented,  and  with  a  view  to  this,  he  recommends 
to  congress  to  designate  by  law,  the  several  ports  at  which 
foreign  ships  of  war  and  privateers  may  be  admitted.  The 
people  of  the  United  States,  however,  felt  an  increasing  inter- 
est in  the  success  of  the  South  American  patriots.  But  it 
was  to  Great  Britain  that  the  patriots  were  principally  indebted 
for  foreign  assistance.  The  English,  Irish,  and  Scotch  auxil- 
iaries engaged  in  the  last  campaign,  amounted  to  four  or  five 
hundred  ;  one  quarter  of  which  only  survived,  their  loss  being 
much  greater  than  that  of  the  troops  of  Venezuela,  in  conse- 
quence of  their  not  being  accustomed  to  the  climate,  or  to  a 
service  attended  with  such  fatigue  and  hardships.  This  waste 
of  the  British  troops,  however,  did  not  discourage  their  coun- 
trymen ;  and  during  the  year  1819,  an  Irish  legion  of  one 
thousand  men  was  raised  by  general  D'Evereux  for  the  service 
of  Colombia.  The  troops  were  disembarked  on  the  island 
of  Margarita,  where  they  were  afterwards  joined  by  general 
D'Evereux,  from  whence  they  proceeded  to  the  main  in  season 
for  the  campaign  of  1820. 

After  the  close  of  the  session  of  congress,  president  Boli- 
var repaired  to  the  head-quarters  of  the  army  on  the  Apure, 
where  he  made  the  necessary  arrangements  for  the  approach- 
ing campaign.  Before  this  opened,  however,  he  proceeded  to 
the  capital  of  New  Granada,  where,  on  the  8th  of  March. 
1820,  he  published  a  proclamation  to  the  people  of  Colombia, 
in  which  he  congratulates  them  on  the  auspicious  event 
of  the  union  of  the  two  countries,  which  he  says  will  cause 
them  to  be  respected  by  foreign  powers,  who  will  admire 
their  devotion  to  their  country,  and  even  cause  Spain  to  ac- 
knowledge them  as  deserving  the  enjoyment  of  their  rights. 

"  Colombians, — I  promise  to  you,  in  the  name  of  congress, 
that  you  shall  be  regenerated.  Your  institutions  will  reach 


116  HISTORY  OP    THE 

high  perfection — your  tributes  will  be  abolished — the  restraints 
upon  your  liberty  and  enterprize  will  be  destroyed — your  vir- 
tues will  be  your  patrimony,  and  capacity,  courage,  and  vir- 
tue, will  alone  be  considered  and  rewarded."  He  concludes, 
by  observing,  that  it  had  been  the  sole  object  of  his  whole 
life  to  form  this  free  and  independent  republic  of  two  families 
of  brethren. 

Bolivar,  in  his  proclamation,  intimated  that  there  was  a  pros- 
pect of  the  war  being  soon  terminated,  and  for  the  expulsion 
of  the  enemy,  from  the  territories  of  the  republic,  he  now  di- 
rected all  his  exertions*  and  to  hasten  the  movements  of  the 
different  corps,  which  had  been  organized  to  act  against  the 
royalists  in  Venezuela,  and  in  the  northern  and  southern  prov- 
inces of  New  Granada,  still  in  the  possession  of  the  Spaniards. 
The  campaign  commenced  in  April,  1820,  by  the  capture  of 
Rio  de  la  Hacha  by  a  combined  attack  of  the  land  and  naval 
forces  of  the  republic,  the  former  commanded  by  general 
Montilla,  and  the  latter  by  admiral  Brion.  After  this  event, 
a  detachment  of  this  army  was  despatched  to  form  a  junction 
with  the  northern  army  of  New  Granada,  which  was  descend- 
ing the  Magdalena. 

The  southern  army  of  New  Granada,  commanded  by  the 
intrepid  general  Valdes,  also  opened  the  campaign  with  suc- 
cess. The  enemy  posted  several  hundred  of  his  bravest  troops 
under  the  traitor  Lopez,  at  Paramo,  where  they  waited  the  ap- 
proach of  the  patriots.  Lopez  attacked  the  vanguard  of  the 
republicans  with  great  boldness,  which  was  compelled  to  give 
way,  when  general  Valdes  ordered  a  charge  to  be  made,  with 
250  men,  of  which  200  were  British  auxiliaries,  which  deci- 
ded the  action.  The  enemy  sustained  a  loss  in  killed  and  pris- 
oners of  about  300.  Lopez  escaped  with  the  remnant  of  his 
troops,  in  consequence  of  the  cavalry  of  the  patriots  not  be- 
ing in  a  condition  to  pursue.  Following  up  this  success,  Val- 
des pursued  the  enemy  with  great  celerity,  obtained  several 
advantages,  and  finally  drove  the  royalists  out  of  the  province 
ofPopayan,  of  which  the  patriots  took  possession  ;  the  royal- 
ists fled  into  Quito,  where  they  hoped  to  retrieve  their  losses 


REVOLUTION    IN   COLOMBIA.  117 


CHAPTER  VII. 

Morillo  proposes  an  armistice — writes  to  the  congress  and  Boli- 
var— the  Colombians  invest  Carthagena  by  sea  and  land — an 
armistice  concluded — revolution  in  Guayaquil — Morillo  re- 
turns to  Spain — succeeded  by  Morales — armistice  expires — 
the  liberator's  proclamation — installation  of  the  congress  at 
Rosario  de  Cucuta — speech  of  the  president — campaign  com- 
mences— Coro  captured — battle  of  Carabobo — congress  con- 
venes— ratifies  the  itnion — -flotilla  if  the  royalists  destroyed — 
Carthagena  capitulates — United  States  acknowledges  the  in- 
dependence of  Colombia — battle  of  Pinchincha — siege  of  Pu- 
erto Cabello — Mr.  Zea's  mission  to  Europe — Spanish  flotilla 
destroyed  at  lake  Maracaibo — the  town  surrendered — Puerto 
Cabello  surrenders  to  the  patriots — installation  of  the  congress 
— speech  of  the  president — arrival  of  a  minister  from  the 
United  States — Bolivar's  plan  for  liberating  Peru — treaty 
with  the  United  States — grand  confederacy  of  all  the  states — 
conclusion. 

The  great  revolution  that  had  taken  place  in  Spain,  which 
re-established  the  constitution  of  the  Cortes  of  1812,  produ- 
ced no  effect  on  the  war  in  America,  until  June,  1820,  when 
general  Morillo,  agreeably  to  orders  received  from  the  consti- 
tutional government  of  Spain,  issued  a  proclamation,  propos- 
ing a  suspension  of  hostilities  predicated  on  the  events  which 
had  taken  place  in  Spain.  On  the  17th  of  June  he  addressed 
a  letter  to  the  congress,  whom  he  styled  "  high  and  mighty 
lords,"  in  which  he  states  that  he  had  received  positive  orders 
from  the  constitutional  monarch  of  the  Spains  to  propose  a 
just  and  generous  accommodation,  which  should  re-unite  all 
the  family,  in  order  to  enjoy  the  advantages  of  their  political 
regeneration.  He  informs  the  congress  that  he  has  appointed 
Thomas  Cires  and  Jose  Domingo  Duarte,  as  commissioner  to 
treat  with  the  congress,  on  principles  honourable  to  both  par- 
ties ;  and  that  he  has  given  orders  to  his  subalterns  to  suspend 
hostilities,  and  to  remain  at  their  several  positions,  and  make 
no  movement  unless  they  are  first  attacked.  He  beseeches 
the  congress  to  cast  away  from  their  remembrance,  from  that 

26* 


118  HISTORY    OF   THE 

moment,  as  he  does  from  his,  the  odiousness  of  the  re-ar,  which 
had,  unhappily,  distracted  their  common  country,  and  only  to 
think  of  the  glory  of  a  re-union  of  countrymen,  kindred,  and 
brethren.  The  congress  was  not  in  session  when  this  commu- 
nication was  received  ;  but  they  were  convened  for  the  pur- 
pose of  considering  it  on  the  13th  of  July,  1820,  when  the 
following  decree  was  passed,  and  sent  to  Morillo  as  an  answer 
to  his  communication. 

"  The  sovereign  congress  of  Colombia,  anxious  to  see  peace 
re-established,  will  hear,  with  pleasure,  the  proposals  which 
may  be  made  on  the  part  of  the  Spanish  government,  provided 
they  shall  have  for  their  end  the  absolute  acknowledgement  of 
the  entire  sovereignty  and  independence  of  the  republic  of 
Colombia  ;  and  that  they  will  not  admit  of  any  other  overture, 
which  shall  not  conform  to  this  principle,  proclaimed  by  the 
government,  as  well  as  by  the  people  at  different  epochas." 

On  the  22d  of  June,  general  Morillo  addressed  a  letter  to 
president  Bolivar,  informing  him  that  he  had  appointed  Rod- 
riguez Toro,  and  Gonzales  Linares,  as  commissioners  to  nego- 
tiate terms  of  peace,  and  that  he  had  given  the  necessary  or- 
ders for  the  suspension  of  hostilities.  Accompanying  this 
despatch,  was  one  from  the  Spanish  general  Torres.  The  re- 
ply of  Bolivar,  to  Morillo,  contains  the  most  noble  and  dignifi- 
ed sentiments.  After  acknowledging  the  receipt  of  his  com- 
munication, he  says, — "The  republic  of  Colombia  most  seri- 
ously congratulates  itself  on  seeing  the  day  on  which  liberty 
extends  her  beneficent  influence  over  unhappy  Spain,  and  to 
see  her  ancient  metropolis  treading  in  the  steps  of  Colombia, 
and  in  the  path  of  reason.  The  people  of  Colombia,  more 
than  ten  years  ago,  determined  to  consecrate  the  last  of  its 
members  to  the  only  cause  worthy  of  the  sacrifice  of  peace — 
that  is  the  cause  of  an  oppressed  country  ;  and  confiding  in 
the  sacredness  of  their  cause,  in  the  most  solemn  manner  on 
the  20th  of  November,  1818,  resolved  to  combat,  perpetually, 
against  all  exterior  domination,  and  not  to  be  reconciled  to  peace 
but  upon  the  recognition  of  absolute  independence.  I  take  the 
liberty  to  enclose  to  you,  sir,  the  fundamental  law,  which 
prescribes  the  only  basis  upon  which  our  respective  govern- 
ments can  enter  into  negotiations 

He  informs  Morillo  that  he  could  not  accede,  entirely,  to 
the  amnesty  which  he  proposes,  until  he  knew  the  nature  of 
the  negotiations  entrusted  to  Toro  and  Linares,  who,  lie  says, 
would  be  treated  with  the  respect  due  to  their  sacred  char- 
acter. 

Early  in  the  season,  Bolivar  took  a  central  position  at  Cucu- 
fa,- where  he  could  direct  and  observe  the  operations  of  the 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA.  119 

several  corps  under  his  command  as  general  in  chief,  and  be 
enabled  to  afford  assistance,  where  it  might  be  most  wanted, 
or  most  efficacious.  The  army  of  the  north,  under  general 
Urdaneta,  which  descended  the  Magdalena,  captured  Mom- 
pox,  and  proceeded  to  the  coast,  where  it  formed  a  junction 
with  that  division  of  the  army  under  general  Montilla,  which 
had  previously  been  despatched  for  that  purpose.  Admiral 
Brion,  with  the  naval  force,  took  possession  of  Savanilla,  and 
general  Montilla  laid  siege  to  Carthagena.  General  Monagas^ 
commanding  a  corps  of  cavalry,  defeated  the  royalists  in  June, 
at  Guire,  in  Barcelona  ;  their  commander  Lozana  was  slain, 
and  a  great  part  of  the  enemy  made  prisoners.  General  Za~ 
raza,  also  a  commander  of  cavalry,  surprised  and  defeated  a 
small  division  of  the  royalists  on  the  7th  of  June,  the  whole  of 
the  enemy  being  killed  or  made  prisoners.  The  central  divis- 
ions of  the  republican  army,  in  the  month  of  October,  1 820, 
entered  the  provinces  of  Merida  and  Truxillo,  and  drove  the 
royalists  before  them,  who,  being  pressed  hard  in  all  directions, 
were  obliged  to  abandon  those  provinces.  < 

The  republic  this  year  had  a  large  number  of  troops  in  the 
field,  well  equipped,  and  commanded  by  experienced  generals, 
and  although  no  decisive  battle  took  place,  the  arms  of  the  re- 
public were  almost  every  where  successful,  and  much  was  done 
towards  the  liberation  of  the  country,  notwithstanding  the  prop- 
osition for  a  suspension  of  hostilities,  calculated  to  damp  the 
spirit  of  operations. 

The  cause  of  the  revolution  was  gaining  ground,  not  only  by 
the  success  of  the  arms  of  the  republic,  but  by  the  spontaneous 
struggles  of  the  inhabitants.  In  the  month  of  October,  before 
the  conclusion  of  the  armistice,  the  inhabitants  in  Guayaquil 
revolted  against  the  Spanish  authorities  ;  and  with  little  loss, 
on  either  side,  succeeded  in  overthrowing  the  royal  govern- 
ment, and  uniting  the  province  to  the  republic.  The  success 
of  this  revolution  in  Guayaquil,  extended  its  influence  to  the 
adjacent  districts  to  Ambato,  Riobamba,  Quaranda,  and  Tu- 
cunga,  in  all  of  which  the  inhabitants  rose  against  the  royal 
authorities,  and  liberated  themselves  from  the  dominion  of 
tyrants.  In  the  eastern  section  of  the  republic,  the  patriots, 
also,  obtained  possession  of  Barcelona,  in  the  month  of  Octo- 
ber ;  and  all  the  northern  part  of  New  Granada,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  city  of  Carthagena,  and  the  isthmus  of  Panama, 
was  liberated  at  the  close  of  the  year  1820,  or  the  beginning  of 
1821.  Maracaibo,  was,  also,  soon  added  to  the  republic,  the 
Spanish  authority  being  overthrown  by  the  spontaneous  efforts 
of  the  inhabitants. 

After  an  unsuccessful  attempt  at  negotiation  by  the  com- 


120  HISTORY    OF    THE 

missioners,  in  the  month  of  August  an  armistice  or  treaty  for 
the  suspension  of  hostilities  was  concluded  and  ratified  on  the 
26th  of  November.  This  treaty  provides  that  hostilies  shall 
cease  the  moment  of  its  ratification,  on  land,  in  the  American 
seas  in  thirty  days,  and  in  ninety  days  in  the  seas  of  Europe. 
It  defines  the  limits  of  the  territories  which  each  party  is  to 
occupy  ;  provides  for  disbanding  some  of  the  guerrillas  ;  for 
promoting  a  free  communication  between  the  territories  occu- 
pied by  the  different  parties  ;  and  contains  an  article  binding 
both  governments,  in  the  event  of  peace  not  being  concluded, 
to  form  a  treaty  for  the  prosecution  of  the  war  according  to 
the  laws  of  nations,  to  prevent,  m  future,  the  horrors  and  cru- 
elty with  which  the  contest  had  been  characterized.  This  ar- 
mistice was  to  continue  six  months,  with  a  provision  for  re- 
newing it  for  a  longer  period  ;  hostilities,  however,  might  be 
commenced  within  that  time,  by  giving  forty  days'  notice  to 
the  adverse  party.  This  suspension  of  hostilities  was  propo- 
sed by  Bolivar,  at  a  time  when  the  troops  of  the  republic  were 
every  where  victorious,  affording  the  strongest  presages  of  the 
successful  result  of  the  campaign.  But  the  president,  as  hu- 
mane and  magnanimous  as  he  is  brave,  as  long  as  there  was 
any  prospect  of  peace,  was  anxious  to  stop  the  effusion  of 
blood,  which  had  so  profusely  flowed  during  this  long  and  fero- 
cious contest. 

Near  the  close  of  this  year  the  congress  published  a  mani- 
festo to  the  people  of  Colombia,  recapitulating  the  events  of 
the  revolution,  and  the  atrocities  of  the  Spanish  chiefs  during 
the  war  ;  and  which  contains  the  reasons  why  Colombia  ought 
not  to  accept  of  the  proffered  terms  of  peace,  but  to  insist  on 
the  acknowledgement  of  her  independence,  as  the  only  admis- 
sible basis  of  negotiation.  Among  these  reasons  is  the  abil- 
ity, approaching  almost  to  certainty,  of  the  republic  to  main- 
tain its  independence. — 

"  On  commencing  hostilities,  Colombia  neither  had  great 
armies,  nor  the  materials  to  form  them ;  to-day  she  has  skilful 
generals,  expert  officers,  veteran  soldiers  inured  to  war,  and 
plenty  of  arms  and  ammunition. 

"  Many  citizens  were  then  afraid  to  be  soldiers  ;  now  they 
are  all  in  arms,  and  delight  in  being  so.  Colombians  are  no 
longer  what  they  were  ;  and  the  population  of  Colombia  are 
anew  people,  regenerated  by  a  ten  years  contest,  in  which 
have  disappeared  those  physical  and  moral  disqualifications 
that  render  her  independence  doubtful,  and  are  become  wor- 
thy and  fit  to  govern  themselves,  instead  of  obeying  another's 
will,  or  any  sovereignty  but  their  own." 

The  Irish  legion  of  general  D'Evereux  rendered  very  im* 


REVOLUTION  IN  COLOMBIA          121 

portant  services  ;n  the  campaign  of  1820,  notwithstanding 
many  of  them  became  dissatisfied  and  left  the  service,  and 
that  great  mortality  prevailed  among  them  in  consequence  of 
their  being  unaccustomed  to  a  tropical  climate.  One  division 
of  this  legion  landed  in  Rio  de  la  Hacha,  in  March,  1820,  and 
formed  a  part  of  the  army  of  general  Montilla,  which  in  the 
course  of  the  campaign  liberated  the  provinces  of  Rio  de  la 
Hacha,  Carthagena  and  .:anta  Martha.  In  April,  1821,  gen- 
eral D'Evereux*  issued  an  address  to  what  remained  of  the 
Irish  legion.  He  says,  '  Although  unable  to  stern  the  torrent 
of  insubordination  and  disaffection,  which  unfortunately  swept 
away  so  great  a  portion  of  our  force,  you  have  on  all  occa- 
sions in  which  the  enemies  of  Colombia  have  presented  you 
the  opportunity,  evinced  your  native  courage,  and  added  fresh 
laurels  to  the  crown  of  Ireland's  fame.  It  gives  me  sincere 
pleasure  to  know,  that  your  merits  are  duly  appreciated  by 
the  governor  general  of  these  provinces,  his  excellency  Ma- 
rianna  Montilla.  The  possession  of  the  provinces  of  Rio  de 
la  Hacha,  Carthagen  ;,  Santa  Martha  and  Maracaiho,  has  been 
the  result  of  the  campaign  of  1820  ;  a  campaign,  of  which 
our  legion  was  the  origin." 

General  Morillo,  after  the  ratification  of  the  armistice  in 
November,  1820,  retired  from  the  command  of  the  Spanish 
armies  in  America,  and  returned  to  Spain,  with  both  the  hon- 
ourst  and  execrations  of  the  country  he  had  ravaged.  Gen- 
eral Morales  and  La  Torre  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the 
Spanish  forces,  who,  refusing  to  extend  the  armistice,  both 
parties  made  preparations  in  the  month  of  April,  1821,  for  the 
renewal  of  hostilities. 

Commissioners  were  sent  out  from  Colombia  to  the  constitu- 
tional government  of  Spain,  to  attempt  to  negotiate  a  peace. 

*  General  D'Evereux,  although  a  native  of  Ireland,  was  a  citizen 
of  the  United  Ssates,  and  resided  at  Baltimore  for  several  years. 
He  devoted  himself  to  the  cause  of  South  American  independence,  in 
a  manner  as  disinterested  as  La  Fayette  did  to  that  of  North  Ameri- 
ca. In  1815,  he  conveyed  succours  to  Carthagena  when  besieged  by 
Moriilo,  and  his  services  during  that  siege  obtained  for  him  the 
thankg  and  friendship  of  Bolivar.  Finding  that  nothing  could  then 
be  done  in  Venezuela,  he  went  to  Buenos  Ay  res.  where  he  gave  to 
the  patriots  a  large  supply  of  munitions  of  war.  He  received  a 
commission  of  general  in  the  service  of  Buenos  Ayres,  and  finally 
returned  to  the  United  States  as  an  agent  of  that  government.  He 
afterwards  went  to  his  native  country  to  raise  troops  for  the  Colom- 
bian service.  From  his  distinguished  and  patriotic  services,  he  is 
justly  entitled  to  be  regarded  as  the  La  Fayette  of  the  South  Ameri- 
can revolution 

f  Morillo  was  created  count  of  Carthagena  for  his  services  in 
America, 


122  HISTORY    OF    THE 

The  subject  was  taken  up  by  the  Cortes  on  the  3d  of  May. 
1821,  and  a  committee  appointed  to  devise  measures  in  con- 
junction with  the  ministers  for  terminating  the  dissentions  in 
America.  A  plan  was  matured  for  establishing  three  govern- 
ments in  Spanish  America,  to  be  under  a  constitution,  the 
.same,  with  some  exceptions,  as  that  of  Spain  ;  the  legislative 
power  to  be  entrusted  to  a  Cortes,  elected  by  the  people,  and 
the  executive  power  to  be  exercised  by  a  delegate  to  be  nam- 
ed by  the  king.  Ferdinand  strongly  objected  to  this  project, 
\vhich  caused  it  to  be  abandoned.  The  commissioners  of" 
Mexico  agreed  to  it,  but  those  of  Colombia  were  expressly 
instructed  to  listen  to  no  terms  of  accommodation  short  of 
unqualified  independence.  This  being  the  only  basis  of  peace, 
the  Spanish 'government  declined  even  to  enter  on  any  nego- 
tiation. Mr.  iiavenga,  one  of  the  commissioners  of  Bolivar, 
in  July,  1821,  had  an  interview  with  Mr.  Brent,  the  charge 
de  affairs  of  the  United  States  at  Madrid,  and  complained  of 
the  ignorance,  illiberality,  and  prejudices  of  the  government 
and  nation  as  to  America,  and  informed  him  that  the  republic 
of  Colombia  relied  on  the  friendship  of  the  United  States, 
and  calculated  that  it  would  take  the  lead  in  the  acknowledg- 
ment of  its  independence.  Mr.  Brent  stated,  that  so  far  as 
he  was  able  to  form  an  opinion,  the  ministers  of  the  foreign 
powers  had  exerted  themselves  during  the  agitation  of  the 
American  question,  to  prevent  any  arrangement  between  the 
parties.* 

On  the  17th  of  April,  Bolivar  issued  a  proclamation  to  the 
army,  styling  it  the  liberating  army.  "  Peace,"  he  says,  "  was 
to  have  been  the  fruits  of  that  armistice  which  is  now  broken ; 
but  Spain  regarded  with  indifference  the  afflictions  to  which 
we  have  been  exposed  through  her  neglect."  He  says  that 
the  remnant  of  the  Spanish  force  cannot  resist  twenty-five 
provinces  which  have  been  liberated  from  slavery  ;  that  the 
nation  expects  from  the  army  its  entire  emancipation,  and 
also  that  in  future  it  will  religiously  fulfil  the  duties  of  human- 
ity, that  the  war  may  no  longer  wear  a  ferocious  character. 
On  the  same  day  he  addressed  a  proclamation  to  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Colombia,  in  which  he  states  that  it  is  more  than  a 
year  since  Spain  had  enjoyed  a  representative  government  ; 
yet  she  had  taken  no  steps  to  abate  her  tyranny  in  America, 
or  withdraw  her  armies  ;  that  the  republic  had  sent  ministers 
to  Madrid  to  negotiate  a  peace  without  success,  owing  to  the 
insincerity  of  the  Spanish  government,  and  that  the  renewal 

*  Communication  of  Mr.  Brent  to  the  secretary  of  state  of  July, 
10,  1821. 


REVOLUTION  IN  COLOMBIA.          123 

of  hostilities  is  the  only  means  of  putting  an  end  to  the  dread- 
ful calamities  ^which  afflict  the  country.  On  the  25th  of  April, 
the  president  issued  another  proclamation  to  the  army,  in 
which  he  says  that  in  three  days  hostilities  will  commence. 

"  Soldiers!  Every  presage  is  in  favour  of  a  victorious  issue, 
because  your  courage  cannot  any  longer  be  resisted,  you 
have  already  done  so  much  that  almost  nothing  remains  for 
you  to  do  ;  but  I  must  apprise  you  that  the  government  ex- 
pects from  you  to  display  compassion  with  your  courage,  and 
that  every  infringement  which  may  be  committed  of  the  regu- 
lations of  war,  will  subject  the  guilty  to  capital  punishment  ; 
if  the  enemy  should  disregard  these  regulations,  we  shall  not 
imitate  them  ;  the  glory  of  Colombia  shall  not  be  stained  with 
blood  dishonourably  shed." 

As  is  usual  in  similar  cases,  each  party  charged  the  other 
with  violating  the  armistice,  and  of  being  the  cause  why  peace 
was  not  concluded.  The  Spanish  general  addressed  a  proc- 
lamation to  his  troops,  in  which  he  asserts  that  the  government 
of  Colombia  had  rejected  peace,  which  was  offered  on  the 
most  liberal  and  honourable  terms,  and  had  violated  the  ar- 
mistice. This  called  forth  a  reply  from  Bolivar,  addressed  to 
the  Spanish  army,  in  which  he  assures  them  that  their  general 
is  mistaken,  and  charges  the  continuance  of  the  war  to  their 
government  ;  he  also  assures  them  that  his  army  will  observe 
most  religiously  the  treaty  entered  into  for  the  regulation  of 
the  war,  and  that  a  capital  punishment  is  already  decreed 
against  every  person  who  shall  infringe  it.  Bolivar  was  at 
this  time  at  Varinas,  which  was  the  head-quarters  of  the  liber- 
ating army. 

On  the  6th  of  May,  the  general  congress  of  Colombia  was  in- 
stalled at  Rosario  de  Cucuta,  agreeably  to  the  fundamental 
law  ;  and  on  the  10th,  the  president  addressed  a  communica- 
tion to  the  congress,  resigning  the  executive  power. 

"  The  act  of  the  installation  of  the  general  congress  of  Co- 
lombia, composed  of  the  representatives  of  twenty-two  free 
provinces,  has  consummated  the  most  ardent  wishes  of  my 
heart.  The  republic,  founded  on  the  complete  union  of  the 
representatives  of  the  people  of  Cundinamarca  and  Venezue- 
la, is  now  destined  to  accomplish  that  liberty  and  prosperity 
which  every  free  people  have  the  right  to  secure  ;  and  I  have 
at  length  had  the  good  fortune  to  see  that  day  when  the  only 
legitimate  depositaries  of  the  sovereign  authority  of  the  peo- 
ple, are  already  in  the  happy  exercise  of  their  sacred  func- 
tions— From  this  moment  I  consider  myself  exonerated  from 
the  charge  of  the  executive  power,  with  which  it  has  been  the 
pleasure  of  my  country  to  entrust  me." 


124  HISTORY    OF    THE 

He  declares  his  adhesion  to  the  authority  of  the  nation,  and 
his  entire  submission  to  the  congress,  and  the  institutions  and 
laws  which  they  were  about  to  establish  ;  but  says,  that  if  the 
congress  should  again  insist  on  investing  him  with  the  presi- 
dency, he  must  protest  against  it,  and  repeats  the  reasons  he 
had  before  urged,  that  the  military  profession,  in  his  opinion, 
was  incompatible  with  the  office  of  chief  magistrate  ;  and 
that  now  the  danger  was  past,  he  did  not  wish  any  longer  to 
endure  the  insinuations  and  reproaches  of  his  personal  ene- 
mies, who  accused  him  of  ambitious  designs.  The  congress, 
by  their  president,  F.  Restrepo,  now  secretary  of  state  for  the 
home  department,  replied  to  the  communication  of  Bolivir  ; 
and  whilst  they  acknowledge  the  weight  of  the  reasons  urged 
by  him,  which  they  say  they  have  not  time  then  fully  to  delib- 
erate upon,  they  urge  in  eloquent  language  the  imperious  ne- 
cessity of  his  continuing  at  the  head  of  the  republic,  and  add, 
that  they  are  persuaded  he  will  make  this  additional  sacrifice, 
and  thus  furnish  a  new  proof  of  his  ardent  zeal  for  the  welfare 
of  his  country.  This  appeal  of  the  national  representation, 
could  not  be  resisted,  and  the  illustrious  Bolivar  consented  to 
remain  at  the  head  of  the  government,  as  well  as  at  the  head 
of  the  armies. 

In  the  month  of  May,  the  campaign  was  opened  by  the  cap- 
ture of  Coro,  by  the  division  of  the  liberating  army  under  gen- 
eral Urdaneta,  on  the,  eleventh  of  the  month.  On  the  15th, 
another  division  of  the  army,  commanded  by  general  Bermu- 
dez,  took  possession  of  Caraccas  ;  but  this  was  premature, 
for  not  being  supported,  he  was  compelled,  by  Morales,  to 
evacuate  the  place  on  the  twenty-sixth,  without  much  loss, 
however,  on  either  side. 

In  the  month  of  June  both  parties  were  concentrating  their 
forces,  and  seemed  to  be  preparing  not  only  to  close  the  cam- 
paign, but  to  decide  the  fate  of  the  contest  by  a  general  ac- 
tion. The  head- quarters  of  the  royalists  was  on  the  plains  of 
Carabobo,  where  they  concentrated  most  of  their  forces, 
amounting  to  6,000  men,  commanded  by  Morales  and  La  Tor- 
re. The  divisions  of  the  liberating  army  were  concentrated 
on  the  fields  of  Tinaquillo  ;  the  first  division,  was  composed 
of  1,500  cavalry,  and  the  valiant  British  battalion  of  Apure, 
commanded  by  general  Paez  ;  the  second  division  consisted 
of  the  second  brigade  of  the  guards,  the  battalions  of  Tyra- 
dore,  Boyaca  and  Vargas  and  the  squadron  of  Sagrada,  com- 
manded by  general  Sedeno  ;  the  third  division  consisted  of  the 
first  brigade  of  the  guards,  with  the  battalions  of  rifles  and 
grenadiers,  conquerors  of  Boyaca,  and  the  regiments  of  horse, 
under  the  command  of  colonel  Plaza.  This  brave  army; 


REVOLUTION  IN  COLOMBIA.         125 

Fieaded  by  Bolivar  in  person  on  the  morning  of  the  23d  of 
June,  marched  towards  the  enemy,  and  early  the  next  day. 
Continued  its  march  through  the  defiles  of  the  mountains, 
which  separated  it  from  the  enemy's  camp  ;  and  by  a  rapid 
but  orderly  movement,  it  reached  the  plains  of  Carabobo  by 
eleven  o'clock,  and  defiled  its  left  in  front  of  the  enemy,  with- 
in reach  of  their  fire.  In  its  march,  it  had  to  pass  a  rivulet, 
exposed  to  the  fire  of  the  whole  royal  army,  on  an  inaccessi- 
ble height,  which  would  admit  but  one  person  t<t  pass  at  a  time. 
The  action  was  commenced  by  the  brave  general  Paez,  who 
with  two  battalions  of  his  division,  and  a  regiment  of  cavalry, 
attacked  the  enemy's  right  wing,  with  such  resolution  and  in- 
trepidity, that  in  half  an  hour,  it  was  totally  routed,  and  cut  to 
pieces,  which  decided  the  fate  of  the  day,  and  it  may  almost 
be  said,  of  the  war.  The  second  division,  except  some  of 
its  light  troops,  was  not  engaged,  in  consequence  of  local 
barriers  ;  but  its  brave  general,  Sedeno,  impatient  at  the  im- 
possibility of  bringing  his  division  into  action,  engaged  a  party 
of  infantry  alone,  and  was  killed  in  the  midst  of  the  enemy, 
lighting  in  the  most  heroic  manner.  The  British  battalion, 
commanded  by  colonel  Farrier,  distinguished  itself  for  its 
bravery,  and  lost  many  valuable  officers  ;  and  the  valour  and 
activity  of  all  the  troops,  led  on  by  the  invincible  Paez,  was 
never  surpassed.  The  defeat  of  the  enemy  was  complete  ; 
their  entire  army  was  annihilated ;  only  400  men  savins: 
themselves  by  taking  shelter  in  Puerto  Cabello.  The  fug£ 
lives  were  pursued  with  great  ardour  as  far  as  Valencia,  where 
the  Spanish  general  La  Torre,  was  overtaken,  with  a  column, 
which  he  had  formed  after  a  defeat,  and  retreated  on  that 
city  ;  this  column  was  put  to  flight,  and  took  refuge  in  Puerto 
Cabello,  whither  colonel  Wrangel  was  ordered  with  his  divis- 
ion, to  besiege  the  place.  The  forces  of  the  republic,  were 
about  the  same  in  number  as  those  of  the  Spaniards,  but  only  a 
part  were  engaged.  Their  loss  in  killed  and  wounded,  was 
about  400,  including  general  Sedeno,  colonel  Plaza,  and  many 
other  brave  officers.  As  a  reward  for  the  distinguished  brave- 
ry ajid  services  of  general  Paez,  in  this  great  victory,  the  pres- 
ident Bolivar,  on  the  battle  ground,  appointed  him  general  in 
chief  of  the  army.*  This  was  the  second  decisive  victory 
which  had  been  obtained  by  Bolivar  on  the  plains  of  Carabobo  ; 
_and  if  the  victory  of  Boyaca,  was  the  Saratoga,  this  was  the 
Yorktown  of  the  Colombian  revolution. 

Having  ordered  colonel  Wrangler  to  lay  siege  to  Puerto  Ca- 
bello,  and  another  division  of  troops,  under  Heras  to  pursue 

*  See  Despatch  of  Bolivar  in  Niles*  Register,  Vol.  21,  page  J5, 
IL  29 


126  HISTORY   OF   THE 

the  Spanish  colonel  Tello,  who  had  been  despatched  from  Car- 
abobo  to  Philipe,  Bolivar,  at  the  head  of  three  battalions,  and 
ii  regiment  of  cavalry,  marched  toward  Caraccas,  which  place 
he  entered  on  the  29th  of  June,  the  royalists  having  abandon- 
ed it  on  the  28th,  on  the  approach  of  the  patriots.  On  enter- 
ing his  native  city,  after  having  rescued  it  the  third  time  from 
the  dominion  of  tyrants,  Bolivar  was  received  by  his  fellow 
Citizens,  assembled  in  immense  crowds,  with  the  transports  of 
joy,  which  the  occasion,  calling  forth  so  many  recollections  of 
past  sufferings  and  present  hopes,  was  calculated  to  inspire. 
The  president  addressed  a  proclamation  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the  city,  in  which  he  observes  that  a  decisive  victory  has 
closed  the  war  in  Venezuela,  and  that  only  one  fortified  place 
remains  to  be  subdued  ;  and  adds,  that  peace,  far  more  glori- 
ous than  victory,  will  soon  put  the  Colombians  in  possession 
of  all  places,  and  of  all  the  hearts  of  their  enemies. 

In  the  month  of  July,  the  congress  assembled  again  at  Cu- 
quta,  and  on  the  12th,  after  a  full  deliberation,  solemnly  rati- 
fied the  fundamental  law,  and  re-enacted  its  provisions.  They 
decreed  a  national  anniversary  festival,  to  be  held  on  the  25th, 
26th,  and  27th  of  December,  for  the  celebration,  first,  of 
the  emancipation  and  entire  independence  of  the  people  of 
Colombia ;  second,  of  the  union  of  the  republic  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  constitution  ;  and,  third,  the  great  victories  by 
which  these  blessings  have  been  established.  The  decree 
ratifying  the  fundamental  law  of  union,  is  signed  by  all  the 
members  of  the  congress.  At  this  session,  the  congress  also 
passed  a  decree  for  the  abolition  of  slavery,  which  we  have 
considered  in  another  place. 

The  last  of  June,  the  squadron  of  Colombia,  under  Brion, 
entered  the  harbour  of  Carthagena,  which  place  was  invested 
by  land  and  water,  where  it  engaged  the  flotilla  of  the  royal- 
ists, and  in  a  severe  action,  succeeded  in  capturing  four  of  the 
enemy's  launches,  and  in  destroying  the  remainder.  The 
Spaniards  suffered  a  loss  of  two  hundred  men.  The  city, 
however,  from  its  great  natural  and  artificial  strength,  held  out 
until  the  23d  of  September,  when  it  capitulated.  Shortly 
after,  Cumana  also  surrendered  to  general  Bermudez,  which 
left  no  part  of  the  present  territory  of  Colombia  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Spaniards,  except  the  fortress  of  Puerto  Cabello? 
the  isthmus  of  Panama,  and  Quito. 

In  the  monh  of  May,  the  army  of  the  republic  under  gen- 
eral Sucre,  destined  to  act  against  the  royalists  in  Quito,  arri- 
ved in  Guayaquil,  which  frustrated  the  plans  of  the  enemy, 
who  was  intending  to  invade  that  province,  which  had  revolted 
against  the  Spanish  authorities,  and  liberated  itself  the  pre- 


REVOLUTION  IN  COLOMBIA.  127 

ceding  October,  and  established  a  junta  for  its  immediate 
government.  After  the  arrival  of  Sucre,  the  junta,  on  the 
15th  of  May,  sent  to  Bolivar  a  communication,  expressing 
their  desire  and  expectations  of  being  regarded  as  a  part  of 
the  republic,  and  saying  that  their  only  object  in  throwing  off 
the  Spanish  authority,  was  to  place  that  province  under  the 
auspices  of  Colombia.  Panama  declared  itself  independent 
of  the  authority  of  Spain,  on  the  15th  of  December,  and  im- 
mediately sent  deputies  to  the  government  of  Colombia,  to  an- 
nounce the  pleasing  event,  which  at  the  same  time  gave  them 
freedom,  and  connected  their  destinies  with  those  of  the  Co- 
lombian republic. 

The  year  1821,  will  ever  be  auspicious  in  the  annals  of  Co- 
lombia ;  its  arms  were  every  where  successful,  and  crowned 
with  one  of  the  most  splendid  and  important  victories  in  mod- 
ern times  ;  it  witnessed  the  final  destruction  of  the  power  of 
Spain,  and  the  liberation  of  the  whole  territory  of  the  repub- 
lic, except  Quito.  But  not  more  glorious  in  the  success  of 
her  arms,  brilliant  as  that  was,  than  in  establishing  her  political 
institutions,  and  the  consolidation  of  the  republic.  Whilst  the 
armies  of  Colombia  were  defeating  its  enemies  in  the  field, 
and  liberating  its  provinces,  the  congress  were  ratifying  the 
the  union,  and  establishing  political  institutions,  founded  on 
the  great  principles  of  the  rights  of  man,  and  calculated  to  se- 
cure, and  give  the  utmost  value  to  the  blessings  of  independ- 
ence and  freedom,  which  had  been  so  gloriously  won  in  the 
field,  the  fruits  of  twelve  years  of  barbarous  war,  and  an 
hundred  battles.  The  congress  continued  their  delibera- 
tions, and  on  the  30th  of  August,  adopted  the  constitution 
of  the  government,  which  has  been  considered,  and  whose 
highest  praise,  perhaps  is,  that  the  government  has  been 
administered  under  it  for  four  years  with  stability  and  won- 
derful success,  considering  the  condition  of  the  country, 
impoverished  and  torn  to  pieces  by  all  the  evils,  miseries,  and 
horrors  of  war.  The  constitution  was  not  only  framed  this 
year,  but  the  government  completely  organized  under  it  ; 
and  the  illustrious  Bolivar,  now  the  acknowledged  father  of 
his  country,  was  elected  president,  and  general  Santander 
vice-president.  A  law  was  also  passed,  for  securing  the  liber^ 
erty  of  the  press,  which  declares  that  it  ought  to  be  as  free 
as  the  faculty  of  speech  itself ;  a  resolution  was  likewise 
adopted  at  this  session,  in  honour  of  certain  patriots  abroad, 
who  had  taken  a  deep  interest  in  the  independence  of  Co- 
lombia. Of  the  number  were  Lord  Holland  and  Sir  Robert 
Wilson  in  England,  and  Mr.  Clay  and  colonel  Duane  in  the 
"United  States, 


128  HISTORY  OF  THE 

The  cause  of  the  revolution  having  made  such  astonishing 
progress  the  last  three  years,  the  independence  of  Colombia 
being  in  fact  established,  and  the  destinies  of  the  republic  so 
glorious  at  home,  it  at  last  began  to  be  viewed  in  a  more  fa- 
vourable light  by  foreign  powers.  From  every  consideration 
of  sympathy,  national  honour  and  interest,  it  was  fit  that  the 
government  of  the  United  States  should  take  the  lead.  It 
was  so.  On  the  8th  of  March,  1822,  president  Monroe  com- 
municated to  congress  a  message,  in  which,  after  alluding  to 
the  epochs  of  the  revolution,  and  the  progress  of  the  war, 
he  says,  "  that  when  we  regard  the  great  length  of  time 
which  this  war  has  been  prosecuted,  the  complete  success 
which  has  attended  it  in  favour  of  the  provinces  ;  the  pres- 
ent condition  of  the  parties,  and  the  utter  inability  of  Spain 
to  produce  any  change  in  it,  we  are  compelled  to  conclude 
that  its  fate  is  settled,  and  that  the  provinces  which  have  de- 
clared their  independence  are  in  the  enjoymement  of  it,  and 
ought  to  be  recongnised."  This  message,  and  the  accompa- 
nying documents,  were  referred  to  a  committee,  who  made 
a  long  report  recommending  the  recognition  of  the  independ- 
ence of  the  Mexican  and  South  American  republics  :  which 
was  adopted  with  great  unanimity  by  congress.  Not  long  af- 
terwards, ministers  were  appointed  to  Colombia,  Mexico,  and 
Buenos  Ayres. 

The  campaign  of  1822,  was  destined  for  the  deliberation  of 
Quito.  During  the  past  year,  general  Sucre  had  maintained 
himself  in  that  quarter,  confirmed  the  independence  of  Guaya- 
quil, and  checked  the  designs  of  the  Spaniards.  The  destruc 
don  of  the  royal  army  on  the  plains  of  Carabobo,  and  the  libe- 
ration of  all  the  northern  territory  of  the  republic,  enabled 
Bolivar  to  direct  his  whole  attention  to  the  expulsion  of  the 
Spaniards  from  the  southern  provinces.  The  army  in  the 
south  under  Sucre  was  re-enforced  by  the  troops  which  could 
be  spared  from  other  situations,  to  the  amount  of  7000  men. 
and  the  illustrious  president  placed  himself  at  its  head.  Both 
parties  having  at  length  concentrated  their  forces,  the  campaign 
and  the  fate  of  Quito  was  decided  at  the  great  battle  fought 
at  Pinchincha,  about  the  first  of  June,  1822.  The  good  for- 
tune of  Bolivar  still  attended  him,  and  the  arms  of  the  repub- 
lic were  again  crowned  with  a  most  signal  victory,  which  an- 
nihilated the  power  of  the  royalists  in  the  south,  rescued  Qui- 
to from  the  dominion  of  foreign  tyranny,  and  connected  its 
destinies  with  Colombia.  This  splendid  victory  was  in  a  great 
measure  gained  by  general  Sucre,  a  young  but  most  gallanl 
officer,  and  procured  for  him  afterwards  the  station  of  com- 
mandant general  of  that  department.  After  the  victory  of 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA.  129 

Pmehmcha,  Bolivar,  at  the  head  of  his  victorious  liberating 
army,  entered  the  city  of  Quito  amidst  the  acclamations  and 
rejoicings  of  the  people. 

On  the  Atlantic  coast,  the  Spanish  still  possessed  Puerto 
Cabello,  whither  the  remnants  of  their  forces  were  collected 
The  place  was  closely  besieged  by  the  Colombians,  under  gen- 
eral Paez.  Morales,  having  equipped  and  manned  a  flotilla 
superior  to  that  of  the  patriots,  commenced  a  system  of  pre- 
datory warfare  on  the  coast.  He  made  a  sudden  irruption  in- 
to the  province  of  Coro,  where  he  routed  a  body  of  Colombi- 
an troops,  who  sustained  a  loss  of  several  hundred  men.  He 
laid  waste  the  country  before  him,  and  seemed  to  be  influenced 
by  the  principle  of  destroying  what  he  could  not  hold  or  re- 
claim. Encouraged  by  this  success,  he  proceeded  against 
Maracaibo,  which  was  obliged  to  surrender,  and  in  the  true 
spirit  of  piracy  and  plunder,  Morales  seized  all  the  private 
property  within  the  reach  of  his  power.  Exulting  in  his  suc- 
cess, he  published  the  most  barbarous  decrees,  which  would 
have  disgraced  an  Attila  or  Tamerlane.  But  fortunately  the 
destructive  career  of  this  barbarian  was  checked  before  he 
had  accomplished  any  thing  of  importance  in  a  military  point 
of  view.  Some  apprehensions,  however,  were  felt  for  the 
safety  of  La  Guayra  and  Caraccas,  and  great  exertions  were 
made  by  the  Colombians  to  equip  a  fleet  at  the  former  place 
superior  to  Morales'.  Commodore  Daniels  was  appointed  to 
command  it.  The  Spaniards  were  defeated  with  great  loss 
and  driven  out  of  Coro,  and  escaped  to  Curracoa,  but  still 
held  possession  of  Maracaibo  and  Puerto  Cabello.  The  prin- 
cipal fort  of  the  latter  place  on  the  main  land  capitulated  to 
general  Paez,  and  this  rendered  the  garrison  entirely  depend- 
ent on  receiving  supplies  by  sea,  which,  however,  it  was  ena- 
bled to  do  as  long  as  the  royalists  maintained  a  naval  superi- 
ority. 

Early  in  the  year  1822,  Mr.  Zea  was  sent  by  the  government 
ef  the  republic  as  ambassador  to  France  ;  and  on  the  8th  of 
April  he  presented  a  long  communication  to  the  French  min- 
ister of  foreign  affairs,  and  to  the  ministers  of  the  other  pow- 
ers resident  at  the  French  court,  urging  the  grounds  and  rea- 
sons for  recognizing  the  independence  of  Colombia,  which 
was  returned  unanswered.  From  France,  Mr.  Zea  went  to 
England,  where,  in  March,  1822,  he  negotiated  a  large  loan 
in  London  for  Colombia.  The  Dutch  and  Portuguese  admit- 
ted the  vessels  of  Colombia  into  their  ports  in  Europe  and 
America,  but  did  not  formerly,  acknowledge  its  independence. 
A  minister  was  sent  by  Colombia  to  Lisbon  to  treat  with  that 
government  respecting  the  boundary  of  the  republic  of  Cplom 


130  HISTORY    OF    THE 

bia  on  the  Brazils,  The  war  in  Colombia  was  now  drawing 
to  a  close.  At  the  commencement  of  the  year  1823,  the 
Spaniards  continued  in  possession  of  the  fortress  of  Puerto 
Cabello  and  of  Maracaibo  ;  but  the  naval  force  of  the  republic 
was  so  augmented  as  to  be  in  a  condition  to  dispute  with  the 
enemy,  the  mastery  of  the  sea.  General  Padilla  was  appoint- 
ed to  command  the  Colombian  squadron,  which,  on  the  23d 
of  July,  1823,  attacked  the  Spanish  flotilla  commanded  by  com- 
modore Laborde,  in  the  lake  Maracaibo,  and  in  a  desperate 
and  sanguinary  action,  totally  destroyed  it.  The  Colombians 
captured  twelve  vessels  ;  three  were  blown  up,  and  two  driv- 
en on  shore  and  destroyed,  and  not  a  vessel  of  the  enemy  es- 
caped. The  Spaniards  had  about  250  men  killed  and  wound- 
ed, and  1,500  made  prisoners.  Their  commander,  Laborde. 
made  his  escape  in  a  boat,  and  got  on  board  of  his  frigate  out- 
side of  the  castle.  The  destruction  of  the  Spanish  squadron 
rendered  it  impossible  for  Morales  to  maintain  himself  long  in 
Maracaibo,  and  accordingly  he  surrendered  with  all  his  troop? 
to  the  patriot  general  Marique,  commanding  the  troops  in- 
vesting the  place  on  the  3d  of  August.  General  Bermudez 
mailed  on  board  of  the  ship  Bolivar,  from  La  Guayra,  a  short 
time  before,  to  take  command  of  the  besieging  army,  but  the 
enemy  surrendered  before  he  arrived  at  Maracaibo.  Notwith- 
standing, the  atrocities  and  barbarities  of  the  savage  Morales, 
which  had  fairly  outlawed  him  from  the  pale  of  humanity,  and 
the  protection  and  rights  of  the  laws  of  wai,  he  and  all  his 
men  were  treated  humanely,  and  permitted  to  embark  for 
Cuba, 

The  last  act,  in  the  bloody  drama,  now  only  remained  to  be 
performed  ;  the  torch  of  war,  which,  for  twelve  years,  had 
desolated  the  fairest  portion  of  the  globe — "  a  country  bles- 
sed by  nature,  but  cursed  by  man,"  now  only  shed  its  hideous 
but  flickering  glare,  from  the  ramparts  of  Puerto  Cabello. 
Biit  these  last  gleams  were  soon  to  be  extinguished.  The 
destruction  of  the  squadron  of  the  enemy  enabled  the  patri- 
ots to  invest  Puerto  Cabello  by  sea,  as  well  as  land,  which  cut 
off  all  communication,  and  deprived  it  of  supplies.  General 
La  Torre,  however,  with  true  Spanish  obstinacy,  held  out  to 
the  last  extremity  ;  but  was  obliged  to  capitulate  about  the 
first  of  December.  This  event,  which  terminated  the  long 
and  desolating  war,  which  has  given  to  Colombia  existence, 
independence,  and  liberty,  was  announced  to  the  nation  by  a 
proclamation  from  the  vice-president,  general  Santatfder 
exercising  the  executive  functions,  dated  the  9th  of  December, 
1823. 

a  Colombians !  I  announce  to  you  your  country  entirely  fn?;c 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA.  131 

from  the  enemies,  who  have  so  obstinately  presumed  to  oppose 
the  immutable  decrees  of  Providence.  The  Spanish  flag 
which  lately  floated  on  the  walls  of  Puerto  Cabello,  has  been 
rent  in  pieces  by  the  valiant  troops  of  the  republic,  and  the 
tri-coloured  flag  planted  thereon  in  its  stead. 

"  No  longer  does  an  enemy  exist  for  us  to  contend  with. — 
The  Colombian  territory  is  entire,  and  the  code  of  happiness 
and  equality  protects  all  who  inhabit  the  country  of  Bolivar. 

"  Colombians,  may  you  enjoy  the  reward  of  your  constancy, 
and  of  your  individual  triumphs  :  they  secure  the  reign  of  lib- 
erty in  America,  and  enable  you  to  offer  a  sacred  asylum  to 
freemen  throughout  the  world.  To  be  a  citizen  of  Colombia, 
is  :to  belong  to  a  nation  possessing  liberty,  constancy,  and 
valour." 

We  have  passed  over  some  civil  occurrences,  to  close  the 
events  of  the  war.  The  first  congress,  the  elections  to  which, 
had  taken  place  since  the  adoption  of  the  constitution,  was 
installed  at  Bogota,  in  April,  1823,  on  which  interesting  occa- 
sion the  vice-president,  Santander,  charged  with  the  execu- 
tive power,  laid  before  the  national  representation  a  long  and 
highly  interesting  message,  containing  a  complete  exposition  of 
of  the  internal  conditon  of  Colombia,  and  the  state  of  its  for- 
eign relations.  On  the  latter  subject,  he  speaks  of  their  rela- 
tions with  the  United  States,  in  the  following  complimentary 
terms  : — 

"  The  government  of  the  United  States  has  given  a  sublime 
example  of  justice  in  the  solemn  acknowledgment  of  the  in- 
dependence and  sovereignty  of  the  states  of  South  America, 
That  nation,  the  cradle  of  liberty,  has  seen,  with  satisfaction, 
this  act  so  justly  acquired  by  policy  and  sound  reason,  and  the 
enlightened  members  of  its  government,  by  this  noble  con- 
duct, have  added  a  new  lustre  to  the  glory  of  a  free  people 
and  to  themselves.  An  agent  from  the  United  States,  at  pre 
sent,  resides  in  this  Capital,  who  has  communicated  to  me  the 
friendly  sentiments  of  his  government,  and  a  desire  to  com- 
mence and  consolidate  an  intercourse  with  the  republic.  The 
executive  has  hastened  to  testify  our  sentiments  through  the 
.means  of  a  Minister  Plenipotentiary,  thereby  preparing  for  our 
future  negotiation." 

He  speaks  of  the  unsuccessful  attempt  to  treat  with  Spam, 
and  says,  that  the  failure  of  that  negotiation  induced  the  gov- 
ernment to  establish  solid  relations  with  the  independent  gov- 
ernments of  the  new  world,  and  it  had  proposed  the  establish 
rnent  of  an  American  confederacy,  uniting  the  political  inter 
ests  of  the  vast  territories  separated  from  Spain,  and  mutually 
g  their  protection.  "The  arms  of  (he  republic,5* 


132  HISTORY    OF  THE 

says  the  executive,  "  have  been  covered  with  glory  wherever 
they  have  carried  liberty  and  law,  and  even  in  misfortune, 
their  honour  has  been  untarnished."  The  message  unfold;-. 
the  deplorable  condition  of  the  national  revenue,  which,  it  says, 
requires  a  new  creation ;  and  urges  on  congress  to  provide 
means  to  pay  the  defenders  of  the  country  ;  and  it  invokes 
the  national  representation  to  recognize  the  public  debts,  pro- 
vide for  paying  the  interest  of  them,  and  to  establish  national 
faith  and  credit.  The  improvement  of  the  organization  of  the^ 
regular  army,  and  of  the  militia  ;  the  preservation  and  increase 
of  the  navy,  and  the  fortifications,  are  recommended  to  the 
attention  of  congress,  as  well  as  the  interests  of  commerce, 
agriculture,  and  the  mines,  neglected  and  almost  destroyed  by 
the- war. 

On  the  9th  of  December,  1823,  Mr.  Anderson,  minister  of 
the  United  States  to  Colombia,  arrived  at  Bogota,  the  seat  of 
government ;  and  on  the  following  day,  with  solemn  and  ap- 
propriate ceremonies  and  honours,  he  was  presented  to  the 
acting  executive  of  the  republic,  and  addressed  to  him  the 
following  noble  sentiments,  honourable  alike  to  himself  and 
his  country : — 

"  Mr.  President :  The  president  of  the  United  States,  ani- 
mated by  an  ardent  wish  to  continue  the  relations  of  perfect 
harmony  and  generous  friendship  between  our  respective  coun- 
tries, has  commanded  me  to  give  the  most  satisfactory  expres- 
sion to  the  liberal  feelings  which  he,  as  well  as  the  people  of 
the  United  States,  must  ever  entertain  towards  the  institutions 
of  freedom  in  every  country.  I  tender  to  you  his  anxious 
wishes  for  the  restoration  of  peace  to  this  republic,  and  pros- 
perity to  its  citizens.  My  own  admiration  of  the  liberal  insti- 
tutions of  Colombia,  and  of  the  glorious  manner  in  which  they 
have  been  created  and  sustained,  affords  the  surest  pledge  oi' 
the  sincerity  of  my  sentiments.  If  this  mission  shall  have  the 
happy  effect  of  giving  solidity  and  duration  to  the  harmonious 
feelings  of  our  countrymen,  it  will  be  a  source  of  unaffected 
joy  to  every  friend  of  free  government. 

"  It  is  on  this  continent,  and  in  this  age,  Mr.  President,  that 
man  has  been  awakened  to  the  long  lost  truth,  that,  undei 
heaven,  he  is  capable  of  governing  himself ;  that  God  has  not 
given  to  him  in  vain  the  part  and  intellect  of  a  human  being. 
Every  motive  that  can  operate  on  a  good  man,  urges  him  to 
cherish  the  institutions  founded  on  the  developement  of  these 
truths,  and  to  nourish  the  principles  which  can  alone  sustain 
them.  The  sublimest  spectacle  that  we  can  enjoy,  is  to  con- 
template our  fellow  man  explaining  and  teaching,  by  reason 
and  argument,  the  truth,  that  "  voluntary  agreement  is  the  only 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA.  133 

legitimate  source  of  political  power."  When  a  nation  is  pene- 
trated with  this  truth,  its  liberty  is  placed  beyond  the  reach  of 
force  or  fraud.'* 

Having  concluded,  Mr.  Anderson  delivered  to  the  vice-pre- 
sident his  credential  letters  of  minister  plenipotentiary  of  the 
United  States  ;  and  his  excellency,  on  reading  them,  congrat- 
ulated him  on  his  safe  arrival  in  the  capital  of  the  republic, 
saying  among  other  things,  that,  "  as  the  United  States  had 
always  been  the  great  luminary  which  the  inhabitants  of 'this 
part  of  America  had  held  in  view  during  their  conflicts,  so 
now  they,  and  particularly  the  people  and  government  of  the 
republic  of  Colombia,  would  delight  to  express  to  the  classic 
land  of  American  liberty  the  high  esteem  which  they  had  ever 
entertained  for  its  government  and  political  institutions,  and 
their  desire  to  improve  and  draw,  still  more  closely,  the  friend- 
ly relations  which  happily  exist  between  the  two  nations." 

This  was  an  interesting  occasion  to  the  two  republics,  par- 
ticularly to  Colombia,  Mr.  Anderson  being  the  first  minister 
received  from  any  foreign  power  ;  as  the  other  independent 
governments,  engaged  in  the  same  glorious  cause,  can  hardh 
be  regarded  as  such.  This  act  of  amity  and  official  connex- 
ion, between  the  two  great  republics  in  the  new  world  ;  whose 
emancipation  and  independence  were  acquired  by  similar 
struggles  and  sacrifices ;  whose  institutions  are  founded  on 
the  same  principles  of  liberty  and  justice ;  both  free — both 
asylums  for  the  oppressed  of  the  old  world  ;  one  flourishing 
and  powerful,  and  the  other  enjoying,  in  prospect,  the  high 
destinies  which  its  sister  republic  has  attained,  was  an  occa- 
sion of  the  deepest  interest,  and  calculated  to  inspire  the  most 
pleasing  sensations  and  the  most  exalted  hopes  in  the  bosom 
of  every  friend  of  liberty. 

After  the  glorious  termination  of  the  war  in  Quito,  in  1823, 
Bolivar,  at  the  earnest  solicitation  of  the  people  of  Peru,  pro- 
ceeded with  a  part  of  the  liberating  and  victorious  army  ol 
Colombia,  into  the  territory  of  that  country,  to  emancipate 
that  interesting  portion  of  Amerira.  The  groans  of  the  op- 
pressed and  suffering  inhabitants  of  Peru  awakened  the  most 
tender  sympathies  of  their  brethren  in  Colombia ;  but  none 
felt  more  sensibly  for  their  sufferings  than  the  illustrious  libe- 
rator, not  more  distinguished  for  his  bravery  than  for  his  hu- 
manity and  magnanimity.  He  considered  himself  not  only  as 
the  liberator  of  Colombia,  but  of  all  Spanish  America.  He 
resolved  to  afford  succour  to  the  Peruvians,  and  to  overthrow 
there,  as  he  had  done  in  his  own  country,  an  odious  foreign 
tyranny  ;  both  humanity  and  policy  dictated  this  course.  The 
people  and  government  of  Colombia  approved  and  seconded 


134  HISTORY  OP  THH* 

this  noble  and  patriotic  design,  and  a  large  body  of  troop? 
were  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  president  to  march  into  a 
neighbouring  state  ;  not  as  enemies,  but  as  friends  and  bene- 
faciors ;  not  as  invaders,  but  as  liberatars ;  not  to  conquer, 
but  to  emancipate  the  people,  and  break  with  their  arms  the 
chains  which  enslaved  them.  The  events  of  this  expedition 
and  its  glorious  success  belong  to  the  history  of  Peru.  To 
prosecute  this  war,  for  the  emancipation  of  a  neighbouring 
state,  the  Colombian  government  obtained  a  loan  in  London 
of  twenty  millions  of  dollars  ;  such  solidity  had  the  national 
credit  already  acquired. 

In  the  Spring  of  1824,  the  congress  of  Colombia  passed  a 
decree  for  the  defence  of  the  country,  directing  the  executive 
to  raise  fifty  thousand  men  in  addition  to  the  troops  then  in 
service  ;  but  to  diminish  the  number  as  circumstances  might 
require.  The  reasons  given  for  this  decree,  were  the  estab- 
lishment of  an  absolute  government  in  Spain,  which  left  no 
hope  of  its  recognizing  the  independence  of  the  American 
states,  and  the  avowed  designs  by  the  European  cabinets  uni- 
ted under  the  name  of  holy  alliance,  which  the  congress  says 
ought  to  awake  the  attention  of  the  free  nations  of  the  nerc 
world,  as  the  principles  on  which  their  independence  and  in- 
stitutions are  founded,  are  proscribed  by  these  allied  despots. 

On  the  3d  day  of  October,  a  treaty,  or  convention. of  ami tj 
and  commerce,  was  concluded  and  signed  at  Bogota,  between 
the  United  States  and  the  republic  of  Colombia,  by  Mr.  An* 
derson,  our  minister,  and  the  vice-president  of  Colombia,  and 
Pedro  Gual,  secretary  of  foreign  affairs. 

The  first  article  provides,  that  "  there  shall  be  a  perfect, 
lirm,  and  inviolable  peace  and  sincere  friendship  between  the 
United  States  of  America  and  the  republic  of  Colombia,  in 
all  the  extent  of  their  possessions  and  territories,  and  between 
their  people  and  citizens  respectively,  without  distinction  oi 
persons  or  places." 

The  second  article  provides,  that  if  either  government  grant 
any  favour  to  any  other  nation,  as  to  commerce  or  naviga- 
tion, the  same  shall  immediately  be  enjoyed  by  the  other  par 
ty  to  this  treaty.  The  third  article  allows  the  citizens  of  one 
republic  to  frequent  the  coast  and  countries  of  the  other,  to 
reside  and  trade  therein,  and  to  pay  no  greater  duties  and 
charges  than  the  most  favoured  nation,  and  to  enjoy  all  the 
rights  and  exemptions  in  commerce  and  navigation,  which  are 
enjoyed  by  the  most  favoured  nations.  The  merchants,  com- 
manders of  vessels,  and  other  citizens  of  one  nation,  residing 
temporarily  for  business  in  the  ports  or  other  places  of  the 
other,  arc  to  be  treated  as  citizens  of  the  country  in  which 


REVOLUTION    IN    COLOMBIA.  135 

they  reside.  There  are  numerous  articles  of  less  importance. 
The  treaty  is  to  remain  in  force  for  twelve  years  from  the  time 
of  its  ratification.  The  respective  ratifications  were  ex- 
changed at  Washington  on  the  27th  day  of  May,  1825,  by 
Mr.  Brent,  chief  clerk  of  the  department  of  state,  and  Jose 
Maria  Salazar,  minister  plenipotentiary  of  the  republic  of  Co- 
lombia. This,  the  first  treaty  between  the  two  republics,  is 
founded  on  principles  of  perfect  reciprocity,  and  will  be  equal- 
ly and  highly  advantageous  to  both  nations  ;  and,  we  trust, 
long  remain  the  basis  of  the  commercial  and  friendly  inter- 
course between  them,  which  will  be  continually  and  rapidly 
increasing. 

A  convention  has  also  been  concluded  between  the  two  re- 
publics, to  put  an  end  to  the  horrible  slave  trade. 

During  the  year  1824,  the  executive  of  Hayti  sent  an  agent 
to  Bogota,  to  propose  a  treaty  of  defensive  alliance  between 
the  Colombian  and  the  Haytien  governments  which  was  not 
acted  on  by  the  executive,  but  referred  to  congress,  who  did 
not  recommend  the  conclusion  of  such  a  treaty. 

Colombia  acknowledged  the  independence  and  sovereignty 
of  Guatamala,  and  an  accredited  minister  from  that  republic 
resides  in  Bogota. 

The  constitutional  congress  of  Colombia  commenced  its 
third  session  at  the  capital  the  first  of  January,  1825.  A  long 
and  satisfactory  message  was  delivered  by  the  vice-president, 
exhibiting  the  tranquillity  and  increasing  prosperity  of  the  coun- 

fry- 

"  The  congress,"  says  the  executive,  "  may  remain  satisfied 
that  our  means  of  defence  are  most  abundant,  and  whatever 
enterprize  may  be  attempted  by  Spain,  will  only  end  in  her  dis- 
grace, and  add  to  the  lustre  of  our  arms. 

"  Our  relations  with  the  American  governments  are  on  the 
footing  of  friendship  and  good  intelligence,  that  ought  ever  to 
exist  between  states  maintaining  the  same  cause.  The  assist- 
ance we  have  afforded  Peru  has  produced  such  an  important 
change  in  that  country,  that  her  independence  can  no  longer 
be  matter  of  doubt." 

In  speaking  of  the  United  States,  he  observes  : — 

"  With  the  United  States  we  maintain  the  most  friendly  and 
cordial  relations.  You  will  have  before  you  in  a  short  time, 
for  your  examination  and  approbation,  the  treaty  of  peace, 
friendship,  navigation  and  commerce,  that  the  executive  has 
concluded  with  the  government  of  those  states. 

"  Colombia  will  be  proud  of  having  been  the  first  of  the 
old  Spanish  American  states  that  has  presented  itself  to  the 
'world,  united  by  means  of  public  treaties  with  a  nation  pre- 


136  HISTORY    OF    THE 

eminently  favoured  by  the  genius  of  Liberty.  You  will  like- 
wise receive,  for  examination,  the  Convention  which  has  been 
.settled  with  the  same  states,  to  put  an  end  to  the  horrible 
slave  trade  ;  our  laws  have  declared  against  that  execrable 
commerce,  and  on  this  basis  the  executive  regulated  its  con- 
duct. The  law  of  the  21st  of  July,  of  the  1  Hh  year,  prohib- 
its the  introduction  of  slaves  :  the  law  regulating  cruizers  de- 
dares  all  vessels  found  trafficking  in  slaves  in  the  waters 
vvithin  the  jurisdiction  of  the  republic,  to  be  lawful  prizes  ; 
but  as  there  are  no  punishments  for  the  infraction  of  the  law, 
and  it  being  for  the  benefit  of  the  human  race,  that  the  au- 
thority  of  the  law  regulating  cruizers  should  be  extended,  it 
appears  to  the  executive  that  this  convention  with  the  United 
States  supplies  this  deficiency." 

This  interesting  and  able  document  concludes  with  the  fol- 
lowing flattering  recapitulation  : 

"  This  is  the  present  state  of  our  republic,  in  every  brancli 
of  its  administration.  Friendship  and  the  best  disposition  with 
the  American  and  foreign  governments — regularity  in  treaties 
and  conventions — order  and  tranquillity  in  the  interior — re- 
spect and  submission  to  the  laws — a  free  press — the  increase 
of  public  education — well  founded  hopes  of  improving  the  na- 
tional wealth — an  army  covered  with  glory,  consecrated  entire- 
ly to  the  cause  of  liberty  and  independence  ;  and  sufficient  re- 
sources to  meet  any  event,  and  to  sustain  its  dignity,  govern- 
ment, and  laws.  It  is  for  you  to  remove  the  obstacles  that  im- 
pede the  rapid  progress  of  this  republic  to  happiness  and  pros- 
perity, and  to  reform  those  defects  which  public  opinion  point- 
dd  out,  and  which  you  acknowledge  to  exist.  If  we  cast  our 
eyes  back  on  the  period  when  the  code  of  laws  was  first  pub- 
lished, and  recollect  what  Colombia  was  then,  we  shall  per- 
ceive with  agreeable  surprise,  that  we  have  made  a  rapid 
stride,  and  conquered  vast  difficulties.  This  ought  to  animate 
Us  to  prosecute  our  designs  with  the  greatest  zeal  and  patriot- 
ism. The  executive  firmly  believes  that  these  virtues  exist  in 
the  legislative  body  ;  and  you,  I  hope,  will  have  sufficient  con- 
fidence in  me  to  believe,  that  I  shall  afford  all  the  assistance 
that  the  experience  of  administration  may  have  placed  in  my 
power  ;  and  above  all,  I  shall  be  extremely  punctual  in  the  ex- 
ecution of  your  wise  deliberations." 

Among  the  important  laws  passed  this  session,  is  one  com- 
pleting the  territorial  divisions  of  the  republic  ;  dividing  it  in- 
to twelve  departments  and  thirty-seven  provinces,  which  has 
been  noticed  in  speaking  of  the  government. 

Among  the  noble  projects  of  Colombia,  or  perhaps  we  ought 
to  say  of  Bolivar,  is  that  of  forming  a  general  confederacy, 


REVOLUTION   IN   COLOMBIA.  137 

composed  of  all  the  states  of  what  was  formerly  Spanish  Amer- 
*ka  ;  and  having  the  same  origin,  bound  by  the  same  interests, 
and  threatened  with  the  same  dangers,  it  seems  just  that  they 
should  have  a  common  destiny,  and  wise  laws,  reciprocally  to 
support  and  defend  each  other.  The  object  of  this  confede- 
racy is  to  unite  the  resources  and  means  of  the  several  inde- 
pendent states  for  the  general  security  ;  for  the  defence  of 
their  independence  and  liberty  ;  to  strengthen  the  ties  of  am- 
Uy  betwixt  them,  uniting  them  as  members  of  the  same  family. 
The  plan  has  been  approved  of  by  Mexico,  Peru  and  Chile, 
which  states  have  concluded  treaties  with  Colombia,  to  carry 
it  into  execution.  This  plan  is  highly  honourable  to  Colom- 
bia, which  possesses  greater  power  and  a  more  commanding 
attitude  that  any  of  the  other  independent  states  :  but  instead 
of  her  attempting  to  make  use  of  these  advantages,  to  become 
the  arbitress  of  what  was  Spanish  America,  her  only  ambition 
seems  to  be,  to  do  most  for  the  common  cause,  to  employ  her 
power  and  resources  for  the  liberation  01  all  America,  and  by 
lier  example  and  counsels;  by  her  assistance  and  friendly 
conduct,  to  unite  the  several  states  in  the  bonds  of  a  family 
compact,  which  will  insure  the  independence  and  liberty  of 
all,  and  promote  their  general  prosperity.  Most  noble  ambi- 
tion !  worthy  the  high  destinies  which  await  Colombia !  wor- 
thy the  illustrious  fame  of  her  founder,  the  invincible  soldier 
of  liberty,  to  whom  history  will  award  the  rare  but  distinguish- 
ed honour  of  having  emancipated  a  greater  portion  of  the  globe 
than  the  most  renowned  heroes  ever  enslaved. 


VOL.  II.  30 


HISTORY 

AND  PRESENT  STATE  OF 

PERU. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

Extent  and  boundaries  of  Peru  —  its  natural  features  —  mountains 
and  waters  —  civil  divisions  —  intendancies  -  geographical 
view  of  —  principal  towns  —  Lima  —  climate  —  soil  and  natural 
productions  —  animals  —  population  —  commerce  —  government. 

,THE  republic  of  Peru  extends  from  Tumbez,  in  latitude  3° 
30'  south,  to  the  Cordillera  of  Vilcanota,  in  latitude  14°  30'  in 
the  interior,  and  to  the  province  of  Atacama  in  Upper  Peru, 
now  the  republic  of  Bolivar,  in  about  20°  30'  south,  on  the 
coast  of  the  Pacific,  embracing  nearly  17  degrees  of  latitude, 
or  1180  miles.  From  west  to  east,  it  extends  from  the  Pacific 
ocean,  eastwardly  across  the  Andes,  to  the  great  vallies  of  the 
head  branches  of  the  river  Amazon  ;  but  its  eastern  boundary 
has  never  been  correctly  defined.  Geographers,  however,  have 
usually  allowed  500  miles  for  its  with,  east  and  west. 

The  whole  of  Lower  Peru  is  traversed  by  the  Andes,  the 
eastern  range  of  which  approaches  within  from  30  to  100  miles 
of  the  Pacific.  The  country  is  naturally  divided  into  three 
distinct  sections,  with  respect  to  soil,  surface,  climate,  and 
natural  productions.  The  first  section  is  that  which  borders  on 
the  ocean,  and  is  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  tracts  of  coun- 
try on  the  globe.  The  whole  of  this  region,  nearly  from  the 
entrance  of  the  river  Guayaquil  to  Coquimbo,  in  Chile,  or 
from  4°  to  30°  of  south  latitude,  is  an  irreclaimable  desert,  ex- 
cept in  the  vallies  of  the  rivers,  where  the  soil  is  capable  of 
the  highest  cultivation.  The  barren  high  country,  along  the 
inner  margin  of  this  extensive  desert,  is  rich  in  mineral  trea- 
sures, but  destitute  of  verdure.  The  whole  coast  of  this  re- 


HISTORY    AND   PRESENT    STATE   OF   PERU-      139 

gion  is  always  free  from  storms,  and  its  waters  may  be  safely 
navigated  at  all  seasons  of  the  year.  It  never  rains,  nor  is 
there  any  thunder  or  lightning  on  the  borders  of  the  Pacific, 
which  singular  phenomena  have  established  here  perpetual 
spring.  A  gentle  mist,  or  dew,  {alls  from  May  to  September, 
to  moisten  and  fertilize  the  soil ;  the  water  for  the  use  of  the 
inhabitants  and  cattle,  and  for  the  purposes  of  irrigation,  is  de- 
rived from  the  rivers  which  descend  from  the  Andes.  Out  of 
the  vallies,  the  whole  country  is  one  bleak,  miserable,  sandy 
waste  ;  alike  destitute  of  trees  or  any  kind  of  vegetation.  This 
tract  of  country  is  also  often  subject  to  earthquakes. 

The  next  section  consists  of  the  elevated  vallies  of  the 
Andes.  These  vallies  and  plains,  of  a  moderate  elevation, 
like  those  of  Bolivar,  enjoy  a  temperature  favourable  to 
health  and  human  comfort,  and  yield  abundantly  the  animal 
and  vegetable  productions  of  temperate  and  tropical  regions. 
At  a  higher  elevation,  the  country  becomes  cold,  sterile,  and 
destitute  of  vegetation  ;  but  is  often  rich  in  mineral  produc- 
tions. The  district  bordering  on  the  rivers  that  discharge 
their  waters  into  the  great  Amazon,  comprises  the  last  section 
of  country,  and  is  characterised  by  half  yearly  alternations,  of 
rainy  and  dry  seasons  ;  but  possesses  all  the  natural  resour- 
ces, and  luxuriance  of  vegetation,  of  other  tropical,  alluvial 
regions. 

Peru  is  washed  by  the  Pacific  ocean  on  the  whole  of  its 
western  border,  affording  it  superior  advantages  for  commer- 
cial intercourse  with  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  for  fisheries  : 
although  the  coast  is  not  indented,  like  the  maritime  borders 
of  most  other  countries,  with  bays  and  harbours,  yet  the 
small  rivers  that  descend  from  the  Andes,  form  a  sufficient 
number  of  convenient  harbours  and  landing  places  on  this 
tranquil  ocean,  to  accommodate  all  the  purposes  of  commerce 
and  navigation. 

The  eastern  section  of  Peru  is  watered  by  the  Ucayle  and 
Tunguragua  rivers,  two  of  the  principal  branches  of  the  Am- 
azon. The  Mautaro  and  Inamberi  form  the  Ucayle  ;  and  the 
Apunmac  and  Jauja  are  the  two  branches  of  the  Mautaro,  and 
water  some  of  the  most  flourishing  districts  in  Peru.  The 
Tunguragua  and  its  numerous  branches  water  the  extensive 
districts  in  the  northeastern  section  of  Peru.  This  branch  of 
the  Amazon  is  navigable  to  the  city  of  Jaen,  in  south  latitude 
5°  21',  near  40Cfc)  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon.  A 
free  navigation  of  these  rivers  would  open  a  great  field  for 
commercial  enterprize. 

The  republic  of  Lower  Peru,  includes  eight  intendancies, 
eight  populous  cities,  and  fourteen  hundred  and  sixty  small 


140  HISTOBY    AND   PRESENT 

towns  or  villages  ;  three  of  the  intendancies  are  situated  oo 
the  coast  of  the  Pacific,  and  five  in  the  interior.  The  three 
first,  are  Arequipa  and  Lima,  in  the  centre,  and  Truxillo  in  the 
north.  Those  in  the  interior  are  Cusco,  Huamanga,  Tarma, 
Huancavelica,  and  some  writers  add  Guantayja.  The  inten- 
dancies are  subdivided  into  districts,  townships,  and  curacies 
or  parishes. 

The  intendancy  of  Arequipa^  has  an  extensive  maritime 
border  on  the  Pacific,  but  much  of  its  territory  is  a  dreary 
waste  ;  it  is,  however,  intersected  by  many  fertile  vallies,  the 
principal  of  which  are  the  vallies  of  Quilca,  Moguegua,  Lo- 
cumba  and  Tacna.  These  vallies  abound  with  excellent 
vineyards,  which  produce  great  quantities  of  wine  and  brandy  ; 
there  are  also  olive  plantations  ;  wheat,  sugar,  cotton  and 
Guinea-pepper,  are  likewise  produced  in  these  fertile  vallies, 
There  are  many  valuable  silver  mines  in  this  intendancy,  of 
which  several  are  very  productive  ;  copper  is  also  found  in  the 
greatest  abundance.  Its  capital  is  the  city  of  Arequipa,  situ- 
ated in  south  latitude  16°  13'  30"  in  the  valley  of  Quilca,  in  a 
fertile  country.  It  was  founded  in  the  year  1530,  by  Pizarro  ; 
near  it  is  a  dreadful  volcano  ;  the  climate  is  very  temperate, 
and  the  best  in  the  country  ;  but  it  has  been  four  times  laid  in 
ruins  by  earthquakes.  The  houses  are  well  built,  generally 
of  stone,  and  vaulted  ;  the  streets  are  kept  clean  by  means  of 
canals.  Its  distance  is  sixty  miles  from  the  port  of  MolendOj, 
on  the  Pacific,  and  two  hundred  and  ninety  miles  from  Lima, 
in  a  south-easterly  direction.  Its  population  is  23,988.  The 
next  most  considerable  place  is  the  city  of  Moguegua,  situa- 
ted in  the  interior,  about  fifty  miles  east  from  the  port  of  Ilo> 
ina  rich  valley  already  mentioned,  which  contains  about  2,000 
inhabitants.  The  principal  ports  of  this  intendancy  are  Iqui- 
que,  in  latitude  20°  7'  south,  a  very  commodious  harbour,  out 
a  small  village  ;  Arica,  in  lat.  18°  20'  south,  a  small  town, 
but  the  principal  seaport  of  Arequipa.  This  intendancy  has 
136,800  inhabitants,  and  embraces  seven  districts. 

Lima  lies  north  of  Arequipa,  and  south  of  Truxillo,  and  is 
the  central  intendancy  on  the  Pacific  border.  Like  Arequipa, 
the  province  of  Lima  is  generally  a  sandy  desert,  except  the 
vallies  on  the  borders  of  the  rivers,  which  descend  from 
the  mountains.  The  most  beautiful  and  productive  of  these 
vallies,  is  that  which  is  watered  by  the  river  Rimac.  The 
plains  watered  by  this  river  are  covered  with  a  luxuriant 
vegetation,  and  produce  sugar,  maize,  rice,  and  the  choicest 
fruits  in  abundance.  In  this  delightful  valley,  on  the  banks 
tf  the  river  Rimac,  stands  the  ancient  and  populous  city 


STATE   *F    PERU*  141 

* 

*>f  Lima,  the  capital,  not  only  of  this  intendancy,  but  of  all 
Peru. 

This  city,  which  is  the  great  emporium  of  trade  for  the 
whole  Pacific  coast  of  the  continent  of  America,  and  the  grand 
depot  of  the  metallic  regions  of  South  America,  into  which 
they  have  been  pouring  their  wealth  for  nearly  three  centuries, 
is  situated  in  south  latitude  12°  3'.  About  six  miles  west  is 
Callao,  its  natural  harbour  and  port,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Rimac.  Lima  is  elevated  about  six  hundred  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  and  is  skirted  by  hills  which  overlook  the  city  ; 
is  surrounded  by  a  wall  of  brick,  and  has  seven  gates.  The 
form  of  the  town  is  nearly  triangular,  the  base  extending  along 
the  river.  Notwithstanding  the  frequent  earthquakes  which 
have  destroyed  this  city,  it  occupies  an  area  of  ten  miles  in 
circumference,  including  thp  suburb  of  San  Lazaro,  situated 
on  the  north  side  of  the  city,  and  separated  from  it  by  the 
Rimac,  over  which  there  is  an  excellent  stone  bridge.  The 
streets  are  paved,  and  through  them  streams  of  water  flow, 
.  conducted  from  the  river  a  little  above  the  city  ;  they  are  broad, 
and  cross  each  other  at  right  angles,  forming  squares  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty  yards  on  each  side.  The  houses  are  low,  but 
commodious  and  handsome,  having  fruit  gardens  attached  to 
most  of  them.  Tn  the  centre  of  the  great  square  there  is  a 
spacious  and  superb  fountain.  The  city  is  divided  into  five 
parishes,  and  contains  23  monasteries,  fourteen  nunneries,  and 
sixteen  hospitals  ;  a  cathedral  and  a  viceroyal  palace.  It  is 
the  seat  of  an  university,  a  school  for  medicine,  and  numerous 
other  public  schools,  besides  being  accommodated  with  a  the^ 
atre^  and  other  places  of  public  amusement.  In  1798,  its 
population,  by  an  accurate  census  was  52,627  ;  it  is  now  esti- 
mated to  contain  near  70,000. 

Lima  was  founded  in  1535  by  Pizarro,  and  is  situated  at  the 
distance  of  2,865  miles  from  Buenos  Ayres,  in  a  north  west- 
erly direction  ;  1,215  miles  from  Potosi,  in  the  same  direction, 
and  about  500  from  the  city  of  Cusco.  Callao,  the  port  of 
Lima,  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Rimac,  and  is 
strongly  fortified.  The  other  ports  belonging  to  this  iiitendan- 
cy  are  Ancan  and  Huacho  in  the  north,  and  Pisco  and  Cho- 
rillos  in  the  south.  It  comprises  eight  districts,  and  a  popula 
tionof  149,112. 

Truxillo  is  north  of  Lima,  and  the  climate,  soil,  and  produc- 
tions, are  similar.  Its  capital  is  the  city  of  Truxillo,  situated 
irilat.  8°  6'  south,  in  the  valley  of  Chimo,  and  was  founded  by 
Pizarro,  in  1535.  It  lies  about  one  and  a  half  miles  distant 
from  the  sea.  The  houses  are  generally  built  of  brick,  and 
only  one  story  high  ;  its  population  is  5,790.  The  port  of 


142  HISTORY    AND    PRESENT 

Truxillo  is  Guanchaco,  situated  six  miles  north.  The  other 
port  in  this  intendancy  is  Payta,  in  lat.  6°  56'.  It  contains  a 
population  of  230,967,  and  is  divided  into  eight  districts. 

Cusco  is  situated  500  miles  south-east  of  Lima,  adjoining 
Upper  Peru,  among  the  rich  vallies  beyond  the  Andes.  It  is 
watered  by  the  Apurimac,  and  other  head  waters  of  the  Ama- 
zon. This  intendancy  enjoys  a  healthy  and  temperate  climate, 
and  is  extremely  rich  in  agricultural  resources,  producing 
wheat,  sugar,  and  the  choicest  fruits  in  the  greatest  abun- 
dance ;  it  contains,  also,  many  valuable  and  productive  gold 
mines.  Its  capital  is  the  ancient  city  of  Cusco,  situated  in 
13°  32' south  lat.  and  was  founded  in  the  eleventh  century  by 
Manco-Capac,  the  first  Inca  of  Peru,  and  taken  possession  of 
by  Francisco  Pizarro,  in  1534.  It  stands  on  an  uneven  scite, 
skirted  by  mountains  on  thfc  north  and  west.  The  ruins  of 
the  famous  fort,  built  by  the  Incas,  are  still  visible  on  the 
mountain  north  of  the  city.  The  houses  are  principally  built 
of  stone,  and  its  public  buildings  are  a  cathedral,  nine  church- 
es, and  numerous  convents.  The  Guatanay,  a  small  river, 
runs  past  the  town.  Its  population  is  estimated  at  32,082. 

Huamanga  is  centrally  situated,  west  of  Cusco,  embracing 
many  rich  and  fertile  vallies,  and  is  well  watered  by  the  head 
branches  of  the  river  Amazon,  possessing  many  rich  and  pro- 
ductive silver  mines.  The  principal  city  is  Huamanga,  lying 
in  lat.  13°  1' south,  on  a  declivity  of  a  mountainous  ridge,  not 
remarkable  for  its  height,  but  still,  so  far  above  the  river  as  to 
be  scantily  supplied  with  water.  It  was  founded  by  Pizarro, 
in  1539,  and  is  situated  180  miles  south-east  of  Lima.  Its 
population  is  25,970  ;  it  has  a  cathedral,  an  university,  sever- 
al chapels  and  convents,  and  a  hospital.  The  country  around 
the  city  is  fertile  and  populous.  The  climate  of  the  inten- 
dancy is  temperate,  and  abounds  with  various  kinds  of  grain, 
fruit,  and  cattle.  There  are  several  mines  near  Huamanga, 
but  few  of  them  are  worked. — This  intendancy  is  sub-divided 
into  seven  districts,  and  contains  a  popalation  of  1 1 1 ,559. 
The  intendancy  of  Huancavelica  comprises  four  districts., 
and  30,917  inhabitants.  Its  principal  town  of  the  same 
name  is  situated  in  south  Int.  12°  53',  and  has  a  population  of 
5,156.  The  productions  of  the  province  are  grain,  sugar  and 
cattle. 

Tar  ma  produces  grain,  cattle,  cocoa,  and  bark,  and  pos- 
sesses several  silver  mines,  one  of  which  called  Yauricocha, 
yielded,  in  one  year,  2,816,703  dollars.  Its  population  is 
201,259,  and  it  is  divided  into  eight  districts.  Its  capital,  of 
the  same  name  as  the  province,  lies  in  lat.  12?  33',  and  has 
5,538  inhabitants. 


STATE   OP    PERU.  143 

These  intendancies  are  divided  into  curacies  or  parishes, 
which  are  or  were  under  the  colonial  system,  governed  by  a 
curate,  a  cacique,  and  an  alcade  ;  the^first  a  spiritual  chief, 
whose  business  it  is  to  teach  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  ;  the 
second  a  collector  of  revenue ;  and  the  third  a  magistrate. 
The  dignitaries  of  the  church  consist  of  bishops  and  arch- 
bishops, who  enjoy  immense  revenues  and  formerly  a  corres- 
ponding influence.  The  churches  and  .other  religious  houses 
are  numerous  and  rjchly  endowed.  The  population  of  Peru 
has  been  estimated  at  1 ,300,000.  This  population  is  similar 
to  other  parts  of  America,  formerly  Spanish,  consisting  of 
Creoles,  European  Spaniards,  Indians,  Negroes,  and  the  va- 
rious mixed  races.  The  European  Spaniards  have  nearly  dis- 
appeared in  consequence  of  the  revolution.  The  Creoles 
constitute  the  enlightened  portion  of  the  community,  and  are 
the  most  efficient  and  patriotic  supporters  of  liberty  and  inde- 
pendence. The  people  of  colour  comprising  the  Indians  and 
all  the  casts,  have  been  much  devoted  to  the  revolution.  The 
Indians,  heretofore  a  much  degraded  class,  have  generally 
filled  the  ranks  of  the  armies,  and  made  excellent  soldiers. 
The  Negroes  and  Mulattoes  are  most  numerous  on  the  coast 
of  the  Pacific,  and  the  Indians,  Mestizos,  and  Cholos,  in  the 
interior.  The  latter  class  are  derived  from  Mestizos  and  In- 
dians. These  degraded  classes  possess  great  muscular  pow- 
er, and  are  remarkable  for  the  quickness  of  their  perception, 
and  their  faculty  for  imitation.  They  make  ingenious  artizans 
and  mechanics,  but  excel  in  painting  and  sculpture  ;  many  of 
their  performances  in  these  arts  are  said  not  to  be  inferior  to 
those  of  the  Italian  masters.  Many  of  these  classes  have  been 
leaders  in  the  revolution.  Many  mulattoes  on  the  coast  possess 
property,  and  make  pretensions  to  learning,  particularly  medi- 
cine, as  they  are  not  permitted  to  enter  into  the  professions  of 
law  or  divinity,  and  they  afford  many  expert  quacks.  Before 
the  revolution,  they  obtained  letters  patent  of  the  king,  confer- 
ring on  them  the  dignity  and  title  of  "  Don,"  of  which  they 
were  extremely  vain. 

The  territory  between  the  eastern  and  western  range  of  the 
Andes,  is  generally  windy  and  cold,  although  some  temperate 
and  fruitful  vallies  intervene.  This  tract  is  called  La  Sierra, 
and  is  rich  in  metallic  wealth.  There  are  frequent  storms  of 
rain,  hail,  and  snow  on  the  mountains — often  attended  with 
tremendous  thunder.  The  year  is  divided  into  only  two  sea- 
sons— the  wet  and  dry  ;  the  former  commencing  in  November, 
and  continuing  until  April ;  and  the  latter,  the  remainder  of 
the  year,  during  which  there  is  no  rain.  This  is  the  winter  oi° 
the  climate,  there  being  frequent  frosts  of  considerable  se- 


144  HISTORY   AND   PRESENT 

verity.  The  coldest  weather  occurs  in  May  and  June,  and 
resembles  the  months  of  October  and  November  in  the  north* 
ern  states  of  North  America,  but  fires  are  never  lighted  to 
warm  apartments.  The  same  kind  of  dress  is  worn  the  year 
round,  and  cattle  are  never  housed.  The  lofty  regions  are 
destitute  of  trees  ;  the  table  lands  only  exhibit  a  stinted  shrub- 
bery, and  a  species  of  wire  grass  or  rush,  which  grows  where 
nothing  else  will  vegetate,  upon  which  the  Vicunas  and  Gua- 
nacps  feed.  In  the  vallies  and  ravines  of  this  tract  of  country, 
the  climate  is  temperate  and  the  soil  fertile,  and  they  are  pro- 
fusely watered  by  the  torrents  which  roll  down  the  mountains^ 
and  are  well  adapted  to  the  production  of  luxuriant  crops. 

On  the  eastern  side  of  the  eastern  range,  the  climate  is 
uniformly  warm  ;  the  seasons  are  divided  in  the  same  manner 
as  in  the  former  tract.  There  are  here  no  frosts  or  snow,  and 
all  the  varieties  of  tfie  climate  consist  in  the  gradations  of 
heat,  and  in  humidity  and  dryness.  On  the  west  of  the  west- 
ern range,  or  the  territory  of  the  coast,  it  never  rains ;  the 
moisture  of  the  earth  is  supplied  from  the  torrents  which  de- 
scend from  the  mountains,  and  from  dews.  There  is  some 
chilly  weather,  but  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  incon- 
siderable ;  thunder  storms  never  occur,  but  earthquakes  are 
not  uncommon.  There  are  some  volcanic  mountains  in  the 
eastern  range  of  the  Andes,  but  their  visible  fires  have  long 
since  been  extinct.  The  climate  of  Peru  is  highly  salubrious. 
On  the  coast  of  the  Pacific,  fever  and  ague  prevails  in  some 
places,  but  acute  diseases  are  almost  entirely  unknown.  The 
inhabitants  who  live  a  temperate  life,  attain  generally  an  ad- 
vanced age.  Peru  has  been  called  the  country  of  old  men. 

Among  the  animals  peculiar  to  Peru,  are  four  distinct  kinds 
of  sheep  ;  the  Llama,  the  Alpacha,  the  Guanaco,  and  the  Vi- 
cuna. The  Llama  and  Alpacha  are  domestic  animals  ;  the 
Llama  is  about  the  size  of  a  stag,  of  different  colours,  white, 
brown,  arid  black  ;  it  chews  the  cud  like  common  sheep  ;  its 
flesh  is  excellent  fqod,  equal  to  mutton — the  wool  long  and 
coarse  ;  it  is  used  as  a  beast  of  burden,  andean  carry  a  load 
of  one  hundred  twenty-five  pounds,  but  is  slow  in  motion, 
having  a  lofty  and  majestic  gait,  carrying  its  head  high  in  the 
air.  It  is  mild  and  docile. 

The  Alpacha  is  a  smaller  animal  than  the  Llama  ;  its  col- 
our is  white,  black,  and  sometimes  spotted  ;  its  flesh  is  not  eat- 
en, but  its  wool  is  very  fine  and  useful.  The  Guanaco  is  still 
smaller  than  the  Alpacha  ;  its  colour  is  usually  red,  resembling 
a  dried  rose  in  the  sun  ;  its  wool  is  fine  and  valuable.  This 
animal  is  wild  and  frequents  the  most  rude  and  inaccessible 
parts  of  the  mountains,  and  is  extremely  fleet.  The  Vicuna 


STATE  OF    PERU,  145 

is  somewhat  taller  than  the  common  English  sheep,  but  with 
a  smaller  body  ;  its  colour  is  brown,  with  white  belly  and  legs. 
This  animal  is  more  vigorous  in  the  elevated  regions  of  the 
mountains,  than  in  low  and  temperate  situations  ;  its  wool  is 
very  fine.  They  are  found  in  abundance  on  the  high  ranges 
of  the  Andes — are  swift  in  their  course,  and  very  timid.  They 
are  usually  seen  in  droves  of  many  hundreds,  among  the  clifts 
of  ,the  mountains. 

The  Chinchilla,  a  little  animal  about  the  size  of  a  Cat,  pro- 
duces valuable  fur,  not  inferior  to  the  Marten.  The  most  re- 
markable bird  of  Peru,  is  the  Condor,  which  is  between  three 
and  four  feet  in  height,  and  whose  wings  are  at  least  fourteen 
feet  from  end  to  end  ;  its  colour  is  dark  brown,  with  a  white 
collar  round  its  neck.  This  bird  possesses  great  strength,  and 
will  run  and  fly  with  amazing  swiftness. 

Among  the  peculiar  vegetable  productions,  is  Cinchona,  or 
Peruvian  bark.  This  important  article  in  the  Materia  Medi- 
ca,  is  found  only  in  Peru,  and  the  adjacent  territory  of  Co- 
lombia ;  there  are  several  species  of  this  bark — the  pale,  yel- 
low, and  red  ;  the  trees  from  which  it  is  taken,  are  slender 
and  straight,  rarely  exceeding  ten  feet  in  height,  and  are  about 
the  size  of  a  man's  leg  ;  they  never  occur  in  clusters,  but  are 
thinly  scattered  throughout  the  forests.  The  bark  is  princi- 
pally collected  by  the  Indians. 

The  commerce  of  Peru,  was,  originally,  during  the  galleon, 
trade,  carried  on  at  Porto  Bello,  across  the  isthmus.  Peru? 
also,  participated  in  the  Manilla  trade.  In  consequence  of 
the  difficulty  of  conveying  bulky  and  heavy  articles  across  the 
country,  Spain  granted  to  Peru  the  privilege  of  cultivating  the 
vine  and  olive,  to  make  wine  and  oil — a  privilege  not  enjoyed 
in  other  parts  of  Spanish  America,  except  in  Chile.  But  it 
was  not  allowed  to  furnish  any  of  the  Spanish  possessions  with 
these  articles,  which  could  be  supplied  from  Spain.  And  for 
this  privilege,  Peru  and  Chile  were  restricted  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  tobacco,  and  some  other  articles.  The  foreign  com- 
merce of  Peru,  since  1778,  with  Europe  and  the  East  Indies, 
*has  been  carried  on  around  Cape  Horn,  and  by  way  of  Ma- 
nilla. 

The  interior  commerce  between  what  were  formerly  Upper 
and  Lower  Peru,  now  Bolivar  and  Peru,  has  been  estimated 
at  the  annual  value  of  $6,693,513  ;  and  the  amount  of  foreign 
goods  introduced  into  these  countries,  through  Buenos  Ayres, 
has  been  calculated  at  g  18,000,000  annually,  previous  to  the 
revolution.  The  independence  of  the  country  will  increase 
its  foreign  commerce  almost  beyond  conception  ;  it  has  not  only 
opened  the  ports  and  removed  the  restrictions  on  trade,  SQ 


HISTORY    AND    PRESENT 

that  the  existing  wants  of  the  people  can  be  supplied,  but  it 
will  increase  those  wants  an  hundred  fold.  The  Indians,  the: 
Mestizos,  Cholos,  and  all  the  mixed  races,  comprising  the 
principal  part  of  the  population,  have  been  kept  in  so  degra* 
ded  a  condition,  that  they  did  not  consume  any  portion  of  for- 
eign goods.  These  classes  being  raised  to  the  dignity  of  free 
citizens,  and  protected  in  their  rights  and  the  products  of 
their  industry,  will  all  become  consumers  of  foreign  goods. 
No  country  in  the  world  has  more  ample  national  resources 
than  Peru.  In  addition  to  the  produce  of  the  mines,  which, 
in  Lower  and  Upper  Peru,  have  been  estimated  at  $14,000,000 
per  annum,  the  country  affords  many  valuable  exports  ;  Peru-* 
vian  bark,  numerous  mineral  substances,  valuable  for  medi- 
cines, paints,  and  other  purposes  ;  copper,  precious  woods  for 
dyeing  and  cabinet  work,  cochineal,  wool  of  the  Alpacha  and 
Vicuna,  chinchilla  skins,  tobacco,  &c.  At  the  present  time, 
the  foreign  commerce  is  principally  enjoyed  by  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States ;  the  principal  articles  sent  from  the 
former  are  manufactured  goods  of  every  description  ;  and  from 
the  latter,  coarse  cottons,  ships,  leather  and  its  manufactures, 
hats,  furniture,  iron,  castings,  nails,  carriages,  paper,  and  some 
other  articles.  These  articles  often  command  a  very  high 
price,  even  in  time  of  peace  ;  iron  has  been  $80  and  $90  per 
cwt.,  and  steel  $135;  common  writing  paper  $12  a  ream  ; 
broadcloth  from  $15  to  $20per  yard;  Levantine  silks,  $5  or 
$6  ;  and  boots,  $25  per  pair.* 

Peru  maintains  a  coasting  trade  with  Acapulco  and  San 
Bias  in  Mexico ;  Guayaquil  and  Panama  in  Colombia  ;  and 
with  Guatamala  and  Chile.  Peru  is  favourably  situated  to  en* 
gage  in  the  whale  fishery,  but  has  not  participated  in  it,  whilst 
the  British  and  our  own  citizens  traverse  half  the  globe  to  pur- 
sue this  lucrative  branch  of  commerce.  The  free  navigation 
of  the  Amazon  to  the  foot  of  the  eastern  Andes,  will  follow  as 
a  consequence  to  the  independence  of  the  country,  which  will 
have  a  favourable  influence  on  the  interior  trade. 

Peru  is  entirely  emancipated  from  the  dominion  of  Spain, 
except  that  the  fortress  of  Callao  is  still  possessed  by  the 
Spaniards  ;  and  has  recently  established  a  government  on  the 
republican  plan.  It  declared  its  independence  in  1821,  after 
it  was  liberated  by  San  Martin,  and  organized  a  government. 
This  government,  however,  maintained  its  authority  but  a 
short  time  after  San  Martin  left  Peru,  and  the  Spaniards  re- 
established their  authority  over  the  country,  which  continued 

*Pazos' Letter,  p.  241. 


STATE  OF   PERU.  147 

until  the  arrival  of  the  liberating  army  undei  the magnanimous 
Bolivar,  in  1824. 

After  the  great  victory  of  Ayacucho,  which  annihilated  the 
Spanish  army,  and  liberated  the  whole  of  Peru,  Bolivar,  who 
had  been  appointed  dictator,  convened  a  congress,  and  re- 
signed, into  their  hands,  his  authority.  This  congress,  which 
was  installed  on  the  10th  of  February,  1825.  conferred  on  the 
liberator  the  supreme  political  and  military  power,  until  the 
constitutional  congress  should  be  installed  in  the  year  1826. 
The  government,  therefore,  in  Peru,  is  not  yet  actually  estab- 
lished ;  its  powers  are  exercised  by  the  Liberator  as  president, 
and  dictator ;  it  is  expected  that  a  congress  will  be  convened, 
a  constitution  framed,  and  a  republican  government  organi- 
sed and  put  into  operation  during  the  year  1826.  The  Peru- 
vian territories  are  the  last  of  the  Spanish  American  domin- 
ions redeemed  from  foreign  despotism,  and  this  has  been  ef- 
fected by  the  other  independent,  governments. 


HISTORY 


THE 


REVOLUTION  IN  PERU. 


CHAPTER  JX. 

JKvents  before  the  revolution — expedition  from  Chile — Lord  Coek,- 
rane  appointed  to  command  the  naval  squadron — San  Martin 
appointed  commander  in  chiej — landing  at  Pisco — attack  on 
Callao — expedition  proceeds  to  Huara — the  'army  advances 
towards  the  capital,  which  is  abandoned  by  the  royalists — de- 
claration of  independence — congress  assembles — San  Martin 
resigns  and  sails  for  Chile — congress  dissolved — Bolivar  en" 
ters  Peru — desertions  of  the  royalists—  battles  of  Junin  and 
Ayacucho — treaty  signed — congress  installed — speech  of  the 
president — his  resignation — general  Sucre — events  in  Upper 
Peru- — expected  meeting  of  congress — conculsion. 

Notwithstanding  Peru  has  been  the  last  of  the  Spanish  col- 
onies, which  has  participated  in  the  renovating  and  salutary 
influence  of  the  spirit  of  independence  and  reform,  that  has 
so  extensively  prevailed  in  both  North  and  South  America  ; 
yet  this  region,  in  the  early  part  of  its  history,  produced  one 
«f  the  most  distinguished  reformers  of  the  age  in  which  he 
lived.  Don  Jose  Antequera,  a  native  of  the  city  of  Lima, 
was  one  of  those  extraordinary  men,  who,  possessing  a  noble- 
ness of  soul,  and  being  animated,  by  the  most  exalted  senti- 
ments, and  the  purest  patriotism,  devoted  himself,  enthusias- 
tically, to  the  cause  of  liberty  and  the  happiness  of  mankind* 

Being  appointed  commissioner  to  inquire  into  the  abuses  of 
the  Jesuits  of  Paraguay,  and  having  found  the  administration 
jprofligate  and  corrupt,  he  endeavoured  to  reform  it,  and  estab- 
lish a  representative  government.  But,  after  an  ineffectual 


HISTORY    OF    THE    REVOLUTION    IN    PERU. 

struggle,  he  was  defeated,  arrested,  conveyed  to  Lima,  and 
with  his  companions,  imprisoned  for  nearly  five  years,  and  was, 
finally,  barbarously  executed  by  the  Spanish  authorities. 

The  spirit  of  independence  that  was  excited  by  Antequera, 
was  now  suppressed  by  his  death,  for  nearly  fifty  years  ;  when, 
in  1780,  during  the  struggle  for  independence  among  the 
North  American  states,  it  again  burst  forth  in  Cusco.  Jose 
Gabriel  Tupac  Amaru,  illustrious  by  his  descent  fromlnca  Say- 
ri  Tupac,  but  more  illustrious  as  the  first  martyr  to  the  eman 
cipation  of  Peru,  from  the  degradation  and  calamities  of  Span- 
ish colonial  despotism,  was  the  valiant  leader  of  this  revolu- 
tion. But,  like  his  predecessor  Antequera,  he  was  unsuccess- 
ful, and  died  like  a  hero.  The  manner  of  his  death  was  re- 
volting to  humanity,  and  characteristic  of  the  brutality  of  the 
Spanish  colonial  tyranny ;  his  tongue  was  cut  out,  and  his  body 
drawn  in  quarters  by  horses,  and  the  mutilated  fragments  were 
burnt  to  ashes.  His  wife  and  children  were  also  murdered  iu 
the  most  shocking  manner,  and  an  exterminating  war  was 
waged  against  his  successors,  which  did  not  cease  until  nearly 
one  third  of  the  population  of  Peru  were  destroyed  by  the  hand 
of  violence.* 

Notwithstanding  the  horrid  devastation  and  massacre  of  all 
engaged  in  this  struggle,  another  patriot  devoted  to  the  cause 
of  liberty  and  independence  arose  in  Peru,  in  1805,  of  the 
name  of  Ubalde.  He  was  a  native  of  Arica,  and  was  the  as- 
sessor or  chief  lawyer  of  the  presidency  of  Cusco  ;  an  enlight- 
ened man  of  acknowledged  talents  and  excellent  character. 
Before  his  project  was  matured,  Ubalde  was  betrayed,  and  felt 
a  victim  (to  his  patriotism  and  devotion  to  the  cause  of  his 
country.  He  was  sentenced  to  death,  with  eight  of  his  com- 
panions, and  more  than  one  hundred  others  were  banished 
from  the  country.  Ubalde  was  executed  at  Cusco,  in  August, 
1805,  and  died  with  Christian  serenity,  maintaining  his  pirnci- 
pies  to  the  last.  While  seated  on  the  scaffold,  he  declared 
that  his  death  would  not  stop  the  progress  of  liberty ;  that  the 
independence  of  South  America  was  not  far  distant ;  and,  al- 
though he  was  going  down  to  the  grave,  without  the  satisfac- 
tion of  witnessing  that  glorious  event ;  yet  his  mind  was  corv 
soled  with  the  hope,  that  his  friends  who  survived  him  would 

*  "  I  passed  over,  (says  Don  Vincente  Pasos)  the  plains  of  Cica 
Cica  and  Calamarca,  about  twenty  years  after  these  massacres,  and 
for  an  extent  of  forty  miles  I  beheld  numerous  heaps  of  bones  of  th< 
miserable  brings  who  had  fallen  there  by  the  sword  ;  and  at  that  time 
were  to  be  seen  at  the  cross  roads  and  in  the  public  places  through- 
out the  country,  the  heads  of  the  leaders  of  the  insurrection  suspend 
ed  on  gibbets." 

Voi4.ll.  31 


150  HISTORY  OF 

one  day  enrol  his  name  among  the  martyred  patriots  of  his 
country.  His  lamentable  fate  drew  tears  from  every  eye.* 
Most  excellent  man,  and  martyred  hero!  thy  prayers  have 
been  heard — scarce  twenty  years  have  elapsed,  and  the  day  of 
retribution  has  come  upon  thy  murderers— the  oppressors  of 
thy  country.  The  eagles  of  liberty  have  already  winged  their 
flight  to  the  summits  of  the  Andes,  and  the  cry  of  independ- 
ence and  freedom  is  heard  from  the  loftiest  mountains,  and  the 
deepest  recesses  of  the  vallies  ;  and  the  same  enlivening  page 
that  records  the  liberation  of  thy  country,  shall  inscribe  thy 
glorious  devotion  to  the  sacred  cause  of  humanity  and  justice. 

No  further  effort  was  made  for  the  emancipation  of  Peru, 
until  after  the  battle  of  Maypu,  which  gave  liberty  to  Chile, 
when  the  gallant  general  San  Martin,  perceiving  that  the  in- 
dependence of  Chile  would  be  much  exposed,  while  the  roy- 
alists were  able  to  command  the  wealth  and  resources  of  Pe- 
ru, conceived  the  noble  project  of  liberating  that  country  also. 
He,  accordingly,  with  the  aid  of  the  governments  of  Chile  and 
Buenos  Ayres,  made  immediate  preparations  to  fit  out  an  ex* 
pedition  against  that  country.  A  naval  armament  was  provi- 
ded with  all  possible  haste,  and  lord  Cochrane,  arriving  in 
Chile,  in  November,  1818,  was  immediately  appointed  to  the 
command.  Many  English  and  American  officers  and  seamen 
flocked  to  his  standard,  and  by  great  exertions  a  formidable 
squadron  was  equipped  and  sailed  in  1819.  This  squadron 
visited  the  coast  of  Peru,  and  continued  to  harass  the  enemy 
by  capturing  their  ships,  and  blockading  their  ports,  until  the 
army  was  ready,  which  was  not  until  August,  1820.  The  ex- 
pedition was  reported  ready  for  sailing  on  the  15th,  and  on  the 
18th  the  troops  were  embarked  at  Valparaiso.  Their  appear- 
ance and  discipline  were  worthy  of  any  country,  and  their 
numbers  amounted  to  4, 900;  15,000  stand  of  arms,  with  a 
proportionate  quantity  of  ammunition  and  clothing,  were  ship- 
ped for  the  purpose  of  organizing  a  corps  of  Peruvians,  who, 
it  was  expected,  would  flock  to  the  revolutionary  standard  as 
soon  as  the  expedition  landed.  General  San  Martin  was  ap- 
pointed commander  in  chief  of  the  liberating  army  of  Peru. 
The  fleet  under  lord  Cochrane  consisted  of  the  flag  ship  of 
fifty  guns,  one  of  sixty  guns,  another  of  forty,  and  four  smaller 
vessels  ;  the  transports  were  twenty  in  number.! 
Before  the  expedition  sailed,  a  bulletin  was  published  : 
44  An  expedition,  equipped  by  means  of  great  sacrifices,  is 
at  length,  ready  to  proceed,  and  the  army  of  Chile,  united  to 

*  Pasos'  Letters, 
t  Journal  of  B.  Hall. 


DEVOLUTION    Of    PERU.  15J 

that  of  the  Andes,  is  now  called  upon  to  redeem  the  land  in 
which  slavery  has  long  existed,  and  from  whence  the  latest  ef- 
forts have  been  made  to  oppress  the  whole  continent.  Happy 
be  this  day  on  which  the  record  of  the  movements  and  the  ac- 
tions of  the  expedition  commences.  The  object  of  this  enter- 
prise is  to  decide  whether  or  not  the  time  is  arrived,  when  the 
influence  of  South  America,  upon  the  rest  of  the  world,  shall 
be  commensurate  with  its  extent,  its  riches,  and  its  situation.'* 

The  expedition  sailed  from  the  port  of  Valpraiso  in  Chile 
on  the  20th  of  August,  1820,  and  reached  Pisco,  which  is  sit- 
uated about  one  hundred  miles  south  of  Lima,  on  the  7th  of 
September,  and  by  the  llth  the  whole  army  was  disembarked. 
The  Spanish  troops  stationed  in  the  neighbourhood  had  pre- 
viously retired  to  Lima,  where  the  viceroy  resolved  to  collect 
his  whole  army.  The  liberating  army  at  first  encountered  no 
resistance,  and  on  the  26th  of  September  an  armistice  for 
eight  days  was  concluded,  at  the  request  of  the  viceroy,  and 
commissioners  from  both  parties  held  a  conference.  On  the 
4th  of  October,  the  armistice  terminated  without  any  success- 
ful result  to  the  negotiation  which  had  been  attempted,  and 
on  the  26th  the  expedition  moved  northward  to  Ancon.  Lord 
Cochrane,  with  part  of  the  squadron,  anchored  in  the  outer 
roads  of  Callao,  the  sea  port  of  Lima.  The  inner  harbour  is 
extensively  and  very  strongly  fortified,  and  is  called  the  castle 
of  Callao.  Under  the  protection  of  the  batteries,  lay  three 
Spanish  armed  vessels  of  war,  a  forty  gun  frigate  and  two 
sloops  of  war,  guarded  by  fourteen  gunboats.  On  the  night 
of  the  5th  of  November,  lord  Cochrane,  with  240  volunteers 
in  fourteen  boats,  attempted  the  daring  enterprize  of  cutting 
out  the  Spanish  frigate,  and  succeeded  in  the  most  gallant 
manner,  with  the  loss  of  only  forty-one  killed  and  wounded. 
The  Spanish  loss  was  120  men.  This  success  annihilated  the 
Spanish  naval  power  on  the  Pacific. 

The  joy  occasioned  by  this  splendid  naval  exploit  was  in- 
creased by  Col.  Arenales,  who  had  been  sent  from  Pisco  with 
1000  men,  with  orders  to  proceed  by  a  circuitous  route  around 
Lima,  until  he  rejoined  the  army  ;  and  on  his  march  he  attack- 
ed and  defeated  a  detachment  of  the  royal  army  sent  from 
Lima  to  oppose  him  ;  the  general  was  taken  prisoner.  Many 
districts  declared  in  favour  of  th6  liberating  army,  and  the  rev- 
olutionary cause  become  so  popular,  that  on  the  3d  of  Decem- 
ber a  whole  regiment  of  the  royalists,  with  their  colonel  at  their 
head,  deserted  from  the  Spanish  service,  and  joined  the  libe- 
rating army. 

After  a  short  stay  at  Ancon,  San  Martin  proceeded  to  Hu* 
ara,  a  strong  position  near  the  port  of  Huacho^  about  seventy* 


152  HISTORY  OF  THE 

five  miles  north  of  Lima.  Here  the  army  remained  for  six 
months,  engaged  in  recruiting  ;  in  disseminating  the  spirit  oi 
independence,  and  cutting  off  the  resources  of  the  royalists  in 
Lima.  After  another  unavailing  armistice,  the  liberating  ar- 
rny  began  to  advance  towards  the  capital  on  the  5th  of  July. 
1821,  when  the  viceroy,  alarmed  for  its  security,  issued  a  proc- 
lamation, announcing  his  intention  of  abandoning  the  city,  and 
pointing  out  Callao  as  an  asylum  for  those  who  felt  insecure 
in  the  capital.  This  was  a  signal  for  an  immediate  flight ; 
the  consternation  was  excessive  throughout  the  city  ;  the  road 
to  Callao  was  crowded  with  fugitives,  carrying  their  most  val- 
uable effects.  The  women  were  seen  flying  in  all  directions 
towards  the  convents,  and  the  narrow  streets  were  literally 
choked  up  with  loaded  waggons,  mules  and  mounted  horsemen  : 
the  confusion  continued  all  night,  and  until  day-break.  The 
viceroy  marched  out  with  his  troops,  not  leaving  a  single  sen- 
tinel over  the  powder  magazine,  having  previously  nominated 
the  marquis  Montemire  as  governor  of  the  city,  who  imme- 
diately called  a  meeting  of  the  inhabitants,  and  the  cabildo,  or 
town  council,  which  resolved  to  invite  San  Martin  to  enter  the 
capital.  The  answer  of  San  Martin  was  full  of  magnanimity, 
and  immediately  inspired  the  greatest  confidence  among  the, 
inhabitants.  He  told  them  that  he  did  not  desire  to  enter  the 
capital  as  a  conqueror,  but  as  their  liberator  ;  and  added,  as  a 
proof  of  his  sincerity,  that  the  governor  might  command  a 
portion  of  his  troops,  for  the  security  of  the  persons  and  pro- 
perty of  the  inhabitants.  The  people  who  had  deserted  the 
city,  now  returned  to  their  dwellings,  and  order  was  restored  ; 
and  San  Martin,  who  a  few  days  before  was  considered  an  en- 
emy, was  now  hailed  as  a  benefactor.  On  the  12th  of  July, 
he  made  his  entry  into  the  capital,  without  ostentation  or  cer- 
emony, and  in  a  manner  worthy  of  a  republican  general.  He 
was  accompanied  by  a  single  aid-de-camp  only,  but  received 
with  the  greatest  enthusiasm  by  most  of  the  inhabitants  ;  and 
all  classes  were  anxious  to  behold  the  man  who  had  perform- 
ed such  distinguished  services  for  their  country  :  he  was  kind, 
courteous,  and  affable  to  all.  The  females  caught  the  enthu- 
siasm of  the  men,  and  vied  with  each  other  in  paying  their  re- 
spects to  their  liberator.  To  every  one  he  had  something  kind 
and  appropriate  to  say,  occasioning  an  agreeable  surprise  to 
the  person  he  addressed.  San  Martin  now  commenced  the 
difficult  task  of  reforming  the  abuses  of  the  colonial  govern- 
ment, and  published  an  address  to  the  Peruvians,  containing 
Bonnd  and  judicious  sentiments,  which  justly  entitles  it  to 
preservation.* 

*  Journal  of  captain  Basil  Hall 


REVOLUTION   JN   PERU  153 

'On  the  28th  of  July,  1821,  the  independence  of  Peru  was 
solemnly  proclaimed.  The  troops  were  drawn  up  in  the  great 
square,  in  the  centre  of  which  was  erected  a  lofty  stage,  from 
which  San  Martin,  accompanied  by  the  governor  and  some  of 
the  principal  inhabitants  displaying  for  the  first  time  the  inde- 
pendent flag  proclaiming  that  Peru  was  free  and  independent, 
by  the  general  wish  of  the  people,  and  the  justice  of  her 
cause  :  Then  waving  the  flag,  San  Martin  exclaimed,  Vive  La 
Patria  !  Vive  La  Liberia !  Vive  La  Independence  !  which 
was  reiterated  by  the  multitude  in  the  square,  while  the  bells 
rung  a  joyous  peal,  and  cannon  were  discharged  amidst  the 
universal  acclammations  of  the  people.  On  the  3d  of  August, 
San  Martin  took  upon  himself  the  title  of  protector  of  Peru, 
and  issued  a  proclamation. 

It  concluded  by  declaring,  that  the  supreme  political  author- 
ity and  military  command  were  united  in  him,  under  the  title 
of  protector,  and  that  Juan  Garcia  del  Rial  was  named 
secretary  of  state,  and  by  specifying  the  other  appointments 
under  his  new  government.  He  also  addresssed  a  proclama- 
tion to  the  Spaniards,  bearing  date  the  4th  of  August,  in 
which  he  says  that  he  has  respected  their  persons  and  pro- 
perty, agreeably  to  his  promise,  but  notwithstanding  which, 
they  murmur  in  secret  and  maliciously  propagate  suspicions 
of  his  intentions.  He  assures  those  who  remain  peaceable, 
swear  to  the  independence  of  the  country,  and  respect  the 
new  government,  of  being  protected  in  their  persons  and 
estates  ;  offers  to  such  as  do  not  confide  in  his  word,  the  priv- 
ilege of  passports,  within  a  given*  time,  to  leave  the  country 
with  all  their  effects,  and  declares  that  those  who  remain  and 
profess  to  submit  to  the  government,  but  are  plotting  against 
it,  shall  feel  the  full  rigour  of  the  -law,  and  be  deprived  of 
their  possessions. 

San  Martin  now  proceeded  steadily  in  recruiting  and  disci- 
plining his  army,  in  reforming  the  local  abuses  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  affairs,  and  in  preparing  and  organizing  a  provisional 
government,  until  the  permanent  constitution  of  the  state 
could  be  established.  When  absent,  he  appointed  the  marquis 
of  Torre  Tagleas  supreme  delegate,  to  exercise  the  functions 
of  government. 

On  the  10th  of  September,  the  Spanish  army  returned  from 
the  interior,  and  marching  past  Lima,  .entered  Callao.  As  it 
passed  the  capital,  San  Martin  drew  up  his  army,  but  did  not 
attack  the  enemy,  wisely  foreseeing  that  an  increase  of  the 
garrison  of  Callao  would  diminish  their  provisions,  and  hasten 
the  surrender  of  the  fortress.  The  Spanish  army,  after  a 
short  stay,  retired,  carrying  off  the  treasures  deposited  in 

31* 


154  HISTORY   AND 

the  castle,  which  shortly  after  surrendered  to  the  independ- 
ents. 

The  liberating  army  now  remained  inactive  until  the  follow- 
ing May,  when  a  detachment  was  sent  against  the  Spaniards, 
which  proved  unsuccessful.  In  July,  1822,  San  Martin  left 
Lima  for  Guayaquil,  where  he  had  an  interview  with  Bolivar, 
the  liberator  of  Colombia,  and,  during  his  absence,  the  people 
of  Lima,  irritated  against  the  minister,  Monteagudo,  forcibly 
deposed,  imprisoned,  and  afterwards  banished  him  to  Panama. 
Tn  August,  San  Martin  returned  with  a  re-enforcement  of  Co- 
lombian troops. 

On  the  20th  of  September,  1822,  the  sovereign  constitu- 
tional congress  of  the  federal  provinces  of  Peru,  was  assem- 
bled, and  the  patriotic  and  popular  chief,  was  happy  to  di- 
vest himself  of  the  dictatorship,  and  gladly  resigned  into  their 
hands,  the  supreme  authority,  which  he  had  exercised  for 
more  than  a  year.  The  congress  duly  appreciating  his  mag- 
nanimity and  patriotic  services,  elected  him,  by  an  unanimous 
vote,  general  and  commander  in  chief  of  the  armies  of  Peru  ; 
but  he  declined  the  appointment,  only  accepting  the  title,  as  a 
mark  of  the  approbation  and  confidence  of  the  Peruvians, 
declaring  that  in  his  opinion,  his  presence  in  Peru  in  command 
of  the  army,  was  inconsistent  with  the  authority  of  the  Con- 
gress. 

" 1  have,"  says  this  illustrious  patriot,  "  fulfilled  the  sacred 
promise  which  I  made  to  Peru.  I  have  witnessed  the  assem- 
bly of  its  representatives.  The  enemy's  force  threatens  the 
independence  of  no  place  that  wishes  to  be  free,  and  posses- 
ses the  means  of  being  so.  A  numerous  army  under  the 
direction  of  warlike  chiefs,  is  ready  to  march  in  a  few  days  to 
put  an  end  to  the  war.  Nothing  is  left  for  me  to  do,  but  to 
offer  you  my  sincerest  thanks,  and  to  promise,  that  if  the  lib- 
erties of  the  Peruvians  shall  ever  be  attacked,  I  shall  claim 
the  honour  of  accompanying  them,  to  defend  their  freedom 
like  a  citizen." 

The  congress  expressed  much  regret  at  his  declaration,  and 
entreated  him  to  take  the  actual  command  of  their  armies  ; 
but  their  appeal  had  no  effect  on  the  conduct  of  San  Martin, 
whose  resolution  was  formed  on  mature  consideration.  He 
had  accomplished  the  object  of  his  mission  ;  he  had  emanci- 
pated the  country,  which  he  had  visited  for  that  purpose,  and 
not  to  become  its  ruler.  On  retiring  from  a  country  which  he 
had  redeemed  from  slavery,  and  given  a  new  creation,  he  pub* 
lished  a  proclamation,  in  which  he  says  that  he  is  repaid  for  ten 
years  of  his  life  spent  in  revolution  and  war  :  "  I  hold  in  my 


REVOLUTION    IN   PERU  155 

hand  the  standard  which  Pizarro  brought  over  to  enslave  the 
empire  of  the  Incas." 

"  My  promises  to  the  countries  in  which  I  made  war  are  ful- 
filled— I  give  them  independence,  and  leave  them  the  choice 
of  their  government." 

San  Martin  proceeded  to  Callao,  and  immediately  sailed  for 
Chile. 

The  congress  now  left  to  themselves,  appointed  a  supreme 
junta  of  three  enlightened  men  to  whom  they  confided  the  ex- 
ecutive power.  In  November,  1822,  an  expedition  sailed 
from  Lima,  for  the  southern  coast,  but  in  Janury,  1823,  short- 
ly after  landing,  the  army  was  defeated  and  dispersed.  This 
disaster  was  followed  by  a  general  discontent  among  the  peo- 
ple, and  in  February,  the  sittings  of  the  congress  were  suspen- 
ded by  Rivaaguero  the  president,  who  shortly  after  dissolved 
them  in  a  most  unconstitutional  manner,  and  every  thing  was 
in  confusion.  Availing  themselves  of  these  disorders,  in 
June  1823,  the  Spanish  army  under  general  Canterac,  re-en- 
tered Lima,  having  driven  the  patriots  into  Callao.  They 
remained  in  the  capital  about  a  fortnight,  levying  contribu- 
tions on  the  defenceless  inhabitants.  This  was  a  short  and 
sad  termination  of  a  struggle  which  had  been  so  successful 
under  the  direction  of  an  able  leader.  Whilst  the  cause  of 
the  revolution  was  thus  prostrated  in  Peru,  general  Bolivar 
was  bringing  the  war  to  a  close  in  Colombia.  Foreseeing 
that  if  the  affairs  of  Peru  were  not  placed  in  a  better  condi- 
tion, the  royal  authority  would  shortly  be  re-established  in 
that  country,  and  the  independence  of  Colombia  would  be 
endangered,  and  being  invited  by  the  Peruvians,  he  resolved 
to  proceed  to  that  country  ;  which  he  did,  at  the  head  of  a 
considerable  force,  and  was  most  cordially  received  at  Lima, 
and  appointed  dictator  until  the  Spaniards  should  be  expelled 
or  subdued.  On  his  approach,  the  royalists  retired  into  the 
interior. 

The  liberator,  in  addition  to  a  formidable  enemy,  that  pos- 
sessed the  whole  of  Upper,  and  most  of  the  interior  of  Lower 
Peru,  soon  found  himself  surrounded  with  difficulties,  in  the 
dissentions  among  the  patriots,  which  threatened  the  entire 
destruction  of  the  revolutionary  cause.  Rivaaguero,  the 
late  president  of  the  congress,  collected  a  force  to  oppose  the 
congress  and  general  Bolivar.  This  insurrection,  however, 
was  soon  suppressed,  and  the  principal  instigators  were  made 
prisoners  and  exiled  ;  but  the  disasters  of  the  army,  and  the 
conflicts  of  the  parties,  soon  obliged  the  congres  to  confer  on 
general  Bolivar,  the  supreme  power  as  dictator,  to  preserve 
the  republic  from  ruin ;  notwithstanding,  however,  general 


HISTORY  OF  THE 

Bolivar  found  it  necessary  to  return  to  Truxillo  for  safety,  un- 
til the  arrival  of  his  re-enforcements  from  Colombia. 

In  the  month  of  February,  1824,  the  royalists  under  gener- 
al Canterac,  took  possession  of  the  city  of  Lima  without  op- 
position, and  about  the  same  time,  of  the  important  fortress  of 
Callao,  by  means  of  a  defection  of  the  troops  from  Buenos 
Ay  res,  forming  part  of  the  garrison.  The  state  of  affairs  in 
Peru  was  now  critical  and  alarming.  The  factious  exerted 
themselves  to  prejudice  the  people  against  Bolivar,  and  charg- 
ed him  with  entertainining  ambitious  designs,  which  induced 
him  to  address  a  proclamation  to  the  people  dated  at  Truxil- 
lo, the  llth  of  March,  1824.  Great  exertions  were  made  by 
the  liberator  to  forward  his  re-enforcements  from  Colombia, 
and  to  organize  a  force  for  the  ensuing  campaign,  sufficient 
to  liberate  the  whole  of  Peru,  from  the  power  of  the  royal- 
ists ;  it  was  also  necessary  to  acquire  a  naval  superiority, 
in  order  to  conduct  the  operations  of  the  war  in  the  most 
efficient  manner.  Such  additions  were  therefore  made,  to 
the  naval  force,  as  to  enable  the  patriots,  not  only  to  blockade 
the  port  of  Callao,  but  to  destroy  a  number  of  vessels  in  that 
harbour. 

The  army  being  at  length  completely  organized,  commenced 
its  operations  in  the  month  of  June,  1824,  and  crossing  the 
Andes,  routed  the  vanguard  of  the  enemy,  consisting  of 
3,500  men,  with  great  loss.  In  addition  to  the  other  advanta- 
ges of  this  victory,  it  was  productive  of  an  accession  to  the 
forces  of  the  patriots,  of  five  hundred  of  the  enemy's  infantry, 
and  one  hundred  of  his  cavalry,  who  deserted  the  royal  stand- 
ard, went  over  to  the  patriots,  and  fought  bravely  against  Span- 
iards. 

The  beginning  of  August,  1824,  the  liberating  army  was  at 
Conocancha,  and  the  royalists  having  approached  near  it,  for 
the  purpose  of  reconnoitering,  Bolivar  marched  with  his 
whole  force,  with  the  determination  of  bringing  the  enemy  to 
a  general  action.  Alarmed  by  this  movement,  the  royalists 
re-traced  their  steps  by  forced  marches,  and  succeeded  in  pas- 
sing the  point  on  the  road  to  Jauja,  [where  Bolivar  had  inten- 
ded to  have  taken  a  position,  with  the  view  to  bring  them  to 
an  engagement,]  several  hours  before  the  Independents  arri- 
ved. Perceiving  that  the  enemy  continued  to  retreat  in  the 
most  precipitate  manner,  Bolivar,  unwilling  that  they  should 
escape,  and  seeing  it  impossible  to  engage  them  with  his 
whole  force,  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  his  cavalry,  although 
greatly  inferior  in  point  of  numbers,  to  that  of  the  enemy,  and 
pursued  at  full  speed.  The  patriots  came  up  with  the  ene- 
*ay  on  the  plains  of  Junto,  and  took  a  position  ne£r  theiri, 


REVOLUTION    IN   PERU.  15t 

hoping  that  the  inferiority  of  their  numbers  would  induce  the 
royalists  to  engage  them.  The  event  answered  their  expec- 
tations ;  for  relying  on  his  superior  numbers,  the  enemy 
made  a  furious  charge  on  t^e  patriot  cavalry,  which  sustained 
the  shock  with  great  firmness.  The  conflict  was  sharp,  and 
in  the  successive  charges,  each  party,  at  times,  seemed  to 
have  the  advantage  ;  but  at  length  the  royalists  were  thrown 
into  confusion,  beaten  and  compelled  to  fall  back  on  their 
infantry  for  safety,  which  had  continued  its  retreat  towards 
Jauja,  and  was  many  miles  from  the  scene  of  action  when 
the  battle  was  decided.  The  enemy  sustnined  a  severe  loss  ; 
two  hundred  and  thirty-five  lay  dead  on  the  field,  among  whom 
were  ten  chiefs  and  officers  ;  many  were  wounded  and  disper- 
sed, and  eighty  made  prisoners,  besides  which,  three  hundred 
horses  were  taken,  with  all  their  equipments,  and  immense 
spoil.  The  loss  of  the  patriots  was  sixty  killed  and  wounded.* 
This  action  toek  place  on  the  6th  of  August. — This  brilliant 
success,  almost  annihilated  the  enemy's  cavalry,  on  which 
they  principally  relied,  at  the  commencement  of  the  campaign, 
and  had  a  very  formidable  influence  on  the  army  and  the  people 
of  Peru. 

Two  days  after  this  victory,  the  republicans  followed  in  pur- 
suit of  the  enemy  towards  the  valley  of  Jauja.  From  the 
battle  of  Junin,  no  important  action  occurred  until  the  9th  of 
December.  After  much  skilful  manoeuvreing  on  both  sides, 
general  Sucre,  commanding  the  liberating  army,  consisting  of 
the  united  forces  of  Colombia  and  Peru,  took  a  position  at 
Ayacucho  early  in  December,  near  the  enemy,  who  was  post- 
ed on  a  height.  On  the  8th  of  the  month,  some  skirmishes 
took  place^  and  on  the  following  day,  the  enemy  attacked  the 
liberating  army  ;  his  right  was  commanded  by  general  Valdez, 
composed  of  four  battalions  and  two  squadrons  of  huzzars, 
with  four  field  pieces  ;  his  centre  by  general  Monet,  consist- 
ing of  five  battalions  ;  and  general  Villalobos  commanded  the 
left,  composed  of  four  battalions,  with  seven  pieces  of  artil- 
lery. The  remainder  of  the  enemy's  cavalry  formed  a  reserve 
in  the  rear.  General  Cordova  commanded  the  right  of  the 
liberating  army,  with  the  second  division  of  Colombia,  con- 
sisting of  the  battalions  of  Bogota  and  the  voltigeurs  of  Pin- 
chinca  and  Caraccas  ;  general  Llamar  commanded  the  left, 
composed  of  the  battalions  of  Peru,  and  three  legions  of  Co- 
lombians, and  the  division  of  general  Lara  formed  the  reserve. 
According  to  the  official  returns,  there  were  9,310  of  the  Span* 
ish  army,  commanded  by  Canterac,  the  viceroy,  in  person; 

*  See  Bolivar's  despatch, 


HISTORY  OF   THE> 

and  only  5,780  of  the  liberating  army,  headed  by  the  intrepid- 
general  Sucre.  But  although  the  two  armies  were  unequal  in 
numbers,  they  were  both  ardent  to  engage,  and  both  confident 
of  victory.  The  Colombian  division  marched  with  supported 
arms,  in  the  most  intrepid  manner,  and  took  their  station  near 
the  Spanish  line,  and  opened  a  fire  with  such  coolness  and  de- 
structive effect,  that  the  enemy  soon  began  to  give  way  ;  and 
in  spite  of  all  their  efforts  to  maintain  their  ground,  they  were 
driven  back  and  thrown  into  confusion.  The  division  of  Peru 
on  the  left,  experienced  a  more  vigorous  resistance,  and  was 
re-enforced  by  general  Lara  with  two  battalions  of  the  reserve, 
consisting  of  the  Colombian  guards.  This  enabled  the  left, 
as  well  as  the  right,  ta  gain  ground  on  the  enemy  ;  and  in  a  few 
moments,  nothing  could  resist  the  impetuosity  of  the  troops 
of  the  united  army.  The  second  squadron  of  huzzars  of  Ju- 
nin  made  a  brilliant  charge  on  the  enemy's  cavalry  posted  on 
the  right  of  general  Valdez,  and  repulsed  them  ;  the  Colom- 
bian grenadiers  alighted  and  charged  the  Spanish  infantry  on 
foot,  and  the  regiment  of  huzzars  of  Colombia,  charged  with 
their  lances  the  grenadiers  of  the  viceroy's  guard,  and  put 
them  to  the  rout.  The  ardour  and  impetuosity  of  the  repub- 
lican troops  soon  decided  the  battle,  which  was  short,  but  ter- 
rible. The  slaughter  was  immense  for  the  numbers  engaged. 
The  enemy  had  2, 600  men  killed  and  wounded  on  the  field  of 
action,  including  the  viceroy  wounded,  and  six  generals  killed. 
The  united  army  sustained  a  loss  of  823  killed  and  wounded, 
of  which  there  were  one  general,  eight  officers,  and  300  men 
killed,  and  six  generals,  thirty-four  officers,  and  480  men 
wounded.  What  remained  of  the  Spanish  army  capitulated, 
and  a  treaty  was  signed  on  the  field  of  battle,  between  the 
royal  commander,  Canterac,  and  general  Sucre,  whereby  all 
the  royal  troops  in  Peru,  all  military  posts,  all  royal  artillery 
and  magazines,  and  the  whole  of  Peru  occupied  by  the  Span- 
ish, were  surrendered  to  the  patriots  as  the  trophies  of  the 
victory  of  Ayacucho. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  distinguished  victories  which  the  an- 
nals of  the  South  American  revolution  afford,  whether  con- 
sidered with  reference  to  the  brilliancy  offthe  achievement,  its 
decisive  character,  or  its  important  consequences.  It  annihi- 
lated the  Spanish  power,  and  liberated  all  of  Lower  Peru.  Its 
immediate  trophies  were,  9,310  men  held  and  made  prisoners 
on  the  field  of  battle,  and  348,  which  surrendered  in  garrisons 
in  Cusco,  Arequipa,  and  Puno,  including  the  column  of  gen- 
eral Ramirez  disperied  in  Quilca.  The  troops,  which  after- 
wards surrendered  in  Upper  Peru,  on  Sucre's  marching  into 
that  country,  in  consequence,  of  this  victory,  amounted  to 


DEVOLUTION    IN   PERU.  J59 

4,610,  making  a  grand  total  of  18,598,  including  25  general 
officers,  and  1,100  chiefs  and  officers.* 

The  liberator  addressed  a  proclamation  to  the  Peruvians, 
and  another  to  the  army  of  Colombia.  In  the  former  he  says, 
that  "  the  army  has  fulfilled  the  promise  he  made  to  them  in 
its  name,  of  emancipating  Peru  ;"  and  adds,  that  the  time  has 
now  arrived  that  he  must,  also,  fulfil  the  premise  he  had  made 
to  them,  of  divesting  himself  of  the  dictatorship  the  moment 
victory  declared  their  freedom,  and  sealed  their  destiny." 

General  Rodel,  who  commanded  the  castle  of  Callao,  re- 
fused to  comply  with  the  terms  of  capitulation,  entered  into 
by  his  superior  officer,  Canterac ;  in  consequence  of  which, 
that  fortress  was  immediately  invested  by  the  Colombian 
troops,  and  rigourously  blockaded  by  a  naval  force,  part  of  the 
navy  of  Chile  being  placed  under  the  orders  of  Bolivar  by  the 
government  of  that  country  for  that  purpose. 

On  the  10th  of  December,  the  Peruvian  congress  was  in- 
stalled, on  which  occasion  the  liberator  transmitted  to  them  an 
interesting  message,  containing  a  resignation  of  his  authority. 

He  speaks  of  the  internal  disorders  of  the  country — the  ex- 
ertions he  had  made  to  remedy  them,  and  of  their  relations 
with  the  other  independent  governments.  "  Colombia,"  he 
observes,  "  their  ally  and  confederate  had  employed  her  army, 
her  navy,  and  her  treasure,  in  fighting  the  common  enemy, 
making  the  cause  her  own  ;  which  ought  to  convince  the  con- 
gress of  the  infinite  value  that  she  attaches  to  a  close  confed- 
eration of  all  the  new  states.  The  governments  of  Mexico, 
Guatamala,  and  Buenos  Ayres,  had  offered  their  services  ; 
but  our  rapid  successes  had  rendered  their  assistance  unne* 
cessary."  The  agent  of  Colombia  had  been  accredited,  and 
the  consuls  of  Great-Britain,  the  United  States,  and  of  Co- 
lombia, had  presented  themselves  in  the  capital,  to  exercise 
their  functions.  He  speaks,  with  confidence,  of  the  probabil? 
ity  of  England  and  France  recognizing  the  independence  of 
Peru  on  being  informed  of  its  complete  liberation,  and  the  en- 
tire extinction  of  the  Spanish  power. 

The  constituent  congress  passed  a  decree,  by  which  they 
conferred  on  general  Bolivar  the  supreme,  political,  and  mili- 
tary command  of  the  republic,  until  the  installation  of  the  con- 
gress prescribed  by  the  constitution,  to  take  place  in  1826. 
They  voted  him  one  million  of  dollars  for  his  eminent  services, 
'which  he  magnanimously  declined  accepting.  They  also  or- 
dered that  an  equestrian  statue  of  the  liberator  should  be 
erected  in  the  constitutional  square  of  Lima,  and  a  medal 

>  Official  despatch  of  general  Sucre,  dated  19th  April, 


*160  HISTORY   OF   THE 

Struck,  with  the  bust  of  the  hero  on  one  side,  and  on  the  other 
this  inscription: — "To  OUR  LIBERATOR,  SIMON  BOLIVAR." 
These  proceedings  of  the  congress  were  communicated  to  the 
illustrious  Bolivar,  by  its  president,  whose  answer  contains  the 
most  noble  and  patriotic  sentiments. 

After  the  liberation  of  the  interior  provinces  of  Lower  Peru, 
general  Sucre  proceeded  to  Upper  Peru,  where  general  Ola- 
neta  still  held  out  against  the  patriots,  and  refused  to  agree  to 
the  terms  of  capitulation  ;  but  as  the  conquerors  of  Ayacucho 
advanced  into  the  country,  the  corps  of  the  royal  army  at  Cho- 
encamba,  Chiquisaca,  Santa  Cruz,  and  other  places,  sponta- 
neously proclaimed  their  independence,  and  declared  in  favour 
of  the  cause  of  the  country.  What  adhered  to  Olaneta  were 
dispersed  by  the  brave  Sucre,  their  general  killed,  and  what 
survived  compelled  to  surrender,  which  liberated  the  whole  of 
Upper  Peru,  except  the  province  of  Chiquitos,  which  had  been 
invaded  and  occupied  by  a  division  of  the  Brazilian  army. 

During  the  summer  of  1825,  most  of  the  Colombian  troops 
which  had  been  employed  in  Peru,, embarked  at  Lima  for  Pa- 
nama. Bolivar  visited  Upper  Peru  in  June,  and  after  his  re- 
turn to  Lima  he  has  remained  in  Lower  Peru,  as  dictator  and 
tuler  of  the  country.  He  prosecuted  the  siege  ofCallao,  and 
kept  it  closely  invested.  In  August,  the  scurvy  raged  among 
the  troops,  and  sickness  prevailed  among  the  unfortunate  in- 
habitants, who  were  compelled  to  retire  within  the  Spanish 
lines.  Neither  the  inhabitants  or  the  troops  had  any  other 
than  salt  provisions,  arid  many  of  the  former  left  the  place  and 
threw  themselves  on  the  generosity  of  the  besiegers,  whilst 
the  latter  deserted  daily.  General  Rondel,  however,  obsti- 
nately continued  to  hold  out,  when  it  was  evident  that  the  pos- 
session of  the  castle  could  be  of  no  use  to  Spain,  and  that  it 
must  soon  yield  to  a  destiny  which  was  inevitable.  The  last 
advices  represent  that  the  fortress  has  surrendered,  but  this 
wants  confirmation. 

Bolivar,  whilst  administering  the  government  of  Lower  Pe- 
ru, and  preparing  it  for  the  adoption  of  republican  institutions, 
has  not  confined  his  attention  to  that  republic.  His  mighty 
mind  and  capacious  patriotism  compass  all  the  vast  countries 
formerly  Spanish,  in  America.  On  the  7th  of  December,  he 
despatched  a  circular  from  Lima,  to  all  the  new  republics, 
urging  the  appointment  of  plenipotentiaries,  to  form  a  general 
confederacy,  which  were  to  meet  at  Panama.  The  circular 
having  been  favourably  received  by  the  governments  of  Co- 
lombia and  Mexico,  the  liberator  soon  after  appointed  two 
delegates  to  represent  Peru,  who  immediately  repaired  to  the 


REVOLUTION    IN    PERU.  161 

Isthmus  of  Panama,  to  await  the  arrival  of  the  plenipotentia- 
ries from  the  other  republics. 

The  liberator  has  made  provisions  in  Peru  for  the  education 
of  the  Indians,  at  the  expense  of  the  republic  ;  three  hundred 
dollars  a  month  are  appropriated  for  instruction  of  Indian 
youth  in  the  colleges  of  Liberty  and  St.  Charles,  and  two  hun^ 
dred,  monthly,  are  to  be  expended  for  the  same  laudable  pur- 
pose, at  the  college  of  Independence.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
the  Peruvian  Indians  are  as  susceptible  of  improvement  by 
aiacation  as  the  whites. 


VOL.  II.  32 


HISTORY 

AND  PRESENT  STATE 


OF  THE 


REPUBLIC  OF  BOLIVAR. 


CHAPTER  X. 

of  territory,  and  face  of  the  country — description  of  de- 
partments— city  of  Potosi,  Charcas  and  La  Paz — rivers,  cli- 
mate, productions,  mines,  commerce  and  population. 

THE  new  Republic  of  Bolivar,  is  composed  of  that  exten- 
sive and  highly  interesting  country  heretofore  called  Upper 
Peru,  consisting  of  seven  separate  territorial  governments, 
formerly  denominated  intendencies,  but  now  called  depart- 
ments, which  are  Potosi,  Charcas,  or  La  Plata,  Cochabamba, 
La  Paz,  Santa  Cruz  or  Puno,  Moxos  and  Chiquitos.  This 
tract  of  country  extends  from  lat.  14°  to  24°  south,  a  distance 
of  nearly  700  miles  from  the  Pacific  ocean  to  the  river  Para- 
guay, about  the  same  distance  ;  and  is  watered  by  the  head 
branches  of  the  Amazon  and  La  Plata,  and  traversed  by  the 
lofty  Andes.  It  possesses  a  climate  of  almost  every  variety  of 
temperature,  from  the  torrid  to  the  frozen  zone,  and  a  soil 
well  suited  to  the  productions  of  both  Europe  and  the  Indies. 
The  region  which  extends  from  Oruro  to  Jujui,  from  17°  52' 
to  22°  south  latitude,  comprises  the  most  mountainous  and 
irregular  part  of  the  country,  ascending,  gradually,  on  every 
side  to  Potosi,  which  is  the  most  elevated  part.  Here  the  two 
noble  rivers,  Amazon  and  La  Plata,  take  their  rise  within 
about  seventy  miles  of  each  other,  in  lat.  17°  30'  south,  and 
discharge  their  waters  into  the  Atlantic  ocean,  the  former  un- 
ier  the  equator,  and  the  lattejf  in  35°  south  lat.  at  a  distance 


OF    THE  REPUBLIC    OF    BOLIVAR.  163 

of  nearly  2,500  miles  from  each  other.  This  whole  country 
is  cold  and  mountainous  ;  but  sterile  as  its  surface  is,  its  bow- 
els are  rich  in  the  precious  metals. 

There  are  two  ranges  of  the  Andes  extending  through  this 
territory,  from  north  to  south,  which  are  called  the  eastern 
and  western.  The  eastern  is  the  loftiest,  and  its  summit  is 
covered  with  perpetual  snow,*while  the  western  range,  is  more 
low,  irregular,  is  less  a  region  of  frost,  and  the  communica- 
tion, through  the  intervening  vallies  to  the  Pacific  ocean,  is 
not  obstructed  by  one  continuous  and  unbroken  range.* 

Potosi  is  the  most  southern  department,  and  is  divided  into 
eight  provinces.  Extending  from  the  Pacific  across  the  ridges 
of  the  Andes,  it  is  generally  a  lofty  and  mountainous  region, 
with  the  exception  of  some  beautiful  and  fertile  vallies,  which 
are  watered  by  the  river  San  Juan  and  its  branches,  discharg- 
ing its  waters  into  the  Pilcomayo,  one  of  the  principal 
western  tributaries  of  the  great  La  Plata  ;  the  head  waters 
of  the  San  Juan  approach  very  near  the  Pacific.  The  princi- 
pal river  on  the  coast  of  the  Pacific,  is  Loxa.  Here  the  val- 
ies  are  rich  in  the  various  productions  of  the  tropical  and  tem- 
perate zones  ;  the  mountains,  however,  are  cold  and  sterile, 
almost  excluding  vegetation,  but  rich  in  the  metalic  treasures. 
In  addition  to  the  celebrated  mines  of  Potosi,  which  are  con- 
sidered the  richest  and  most  productive  in  South  America, 
almost  every  section  of  this  department  abounds  with  valua- 
ble mines  of  silver.  There  are  also,  many  rich  mines  of  gold, 
copper,  and  iron  ores,  scattered  over  the  whole  face  of  the 
country — in  fact,  the  mineral  resources  of  this  region,  are  not 
surpassed  by  any  other  in  the  world,  either  as  it  respects 
abundance  or  variety. 

The  population  of  Potosi  has  been  variously  estimated,  but 
is  supposed,  by  the  best  authorities,  to  be  about  112,000,  in- 
cluding 25,000  Indians.  The  principal  town,  and  also  the 
capital  of  the  Republic  of  Bolivar,  is  the  celebrated  mining 
city  of  Potosi,  situated  in  lat.  19°  30'  south,  at  the  elevation 
of  1 1 ,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  on  the*  great  post 
.  road  leading  from  Buenos  Ayres  to  Lima  ;  1,650  miles  from 
the  former,  and,  1215  from  the  latter,  and  about  300  miles 
east  of  the  Pacific  ocean.  The  city  is  built  at  the  bottom  of 
the  celebrated  mountain  of  the  same  name,  so  famous  for  the 

*  For  this  account  of  the  new  Republic  of  Bolivar,  we  are  prin 
cipally  indebted  to  the  Letters  of  Don  Vincente  Pazos,  on  the  United 
Provinces  of  South  A.merica,  the  most  authentic  and  valuable  work 
on  that  country.     The  author  is  a  native  of  the  country  and  a  man  of 
teaming  and  intelligence  as  well  as  patriotism  and  humanity. 


164       HISTORY  AND  PRESENT  STATE 

immense  riches,  which  it  has  been  pouring  forth  for  the  laat 
three  centuries.  The  figure  of  this  mountain  is  conic,  and 
it  is  covered  with  green,  red,  yellow,  and  blue  spots,  that  gives 
it  a  very  curious  appearance,  resembling  no  other  mountain  in 
the  world,  and  it  is  entirely  bare  without  trees  or  shrubs. 
The  city  of  Potosi  is  nearly  nine  miles  in  circumference  ;  it 
is  divided  into  the  city  proper,  and  Yngenios,  where  are  situa- 
ted the  labratories  of  the  mines,  and  which  are  separated  by 
a  small  river,  called  the  river  of  the  lakes,  over  which  there  is 
a  stone  bridge.  The  city  and  Yngenois  kare  nearly  a  mile  a- 
part.  The  streets  are  narrow  and  irregular,  and  paved  with 
round  stones,  with  side  walks.  The  houses  are  uniformly  of 
one  story,  built  of  stone  and  brick,  with  balconies  of  wood, 
and  without  chimneys,  each  one  having  a  yard  in  the  rear  sup- 
plied with  fountains  of  water.  There  are  in  Potosi,  three 
monasteries,  five  convents,  and  nineteen  parochial  churches, 
which  are  richly  ornamented  with  silver.  On  the  north  side 
of  the  public  square  is  situated  the  mint,  which  is  a  grand  edi- 
fice of  free  stone,  of  a  quadrangular  figure,  two  stories  high, 
and  nearly  450  feet  square,  in  which  are  offices  for  the  govern- 
ors and  workmen,  and  apartments  for  the  extensive  machinery. 
The  coining  of  this  mint  surpasses  that  of  Lima  or  Santiago, 
and  is  said  to  have  produced  in  prosperous  times  4,000,000  of 
dollars  annually.  The  climate  of  Potosi  is  very  cold,  and 
for  a  distance  of  twelve  miles  around  the  city  there  are  no 
trees  or  shrubbery  of  any  kind,  and  nothing  vegetates  except 
a  species  of  green  moss.  On  the  hills  above  the  town,  there 
are  about  thirty  artificial  lakes,  for  supplying  the  city  with 
water,  and  turning  the  mills  of  the  miners  ;  the  number  of 
mills,  or  amalgamation  works,  are  one  hundred  and  twenty  ; 
the  ores  worked  in  these,  are  brought  down  from  the  moun- 
tains above,  at  the  height  of  16,250  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.*  The  extraordinary  mines  of  this  mountain  were 

m 

*The  following  is  the  process  of  separating  the  metals  from  the 
ores  : — The  miils  set  in  operation  several  copper  or  iron  hammers  of 
the  weight  of  200  pounds,  by  which  the  ore  is  reduced  to  powder. 
To  prepare  it  for  this  operation,  it  is  sometimes  dried  ;  at  others, 
moistened  with  water.  This  powder  is  sifted  through  large  iron  or 
copper  seives,  requiring  four  or  five  Indians  each  ;  what  passes 
through  the  sieve,  is  taken  for  amalgamation  ;  and  what  does  not,  is 
returned  to  the  mills.  The  pulverised  ore  is  wet,  and  kneaded  with 
the  feet  by  the  Indians,  and  then  spread  on  floors  about  one  fool 
thick,  in  parcels  of  about  2,500  weight  each.  On  these  heaps,  aboul 
200  weight  of  salt,  and  a  quantity  of  mercury,  which  varies  accord- 
ing to  the  richness  of  the  ore,  are  strewed,  and  the  whole  mass  is 
stirred  eight  or  ten  times  a  day,  sometimes  for  a  month  or  six  weeks. 
This  is  the  process  of  amalgamation,  the  object  of  which  is  to  have 
the  mercury  unite  or  amalgamate  with  the  grains  of  silver.  When 


OF  THE  REPUBLIC  OF  BOLIVAB.        165 


discovered  in  1545  by  an  Indian  named  Hualpa,  accidentally, 
as  he  was  pursuing  his  goats  up  the  mountain  ;  but  others  say 
that  the  first  discoverer  was  Potocchi,  from  whom  the  moun- 
tain derives  its  name.  Potosi,  according  to  the  best  authori- 
ties, contains  a  population  of  40,000  inhabitants,  who  subsist 
chiefly  by  mining  ;  it  is  the  focus  of  all  the  commerce  be- 
tween Buenos  Ayres  and  Upper  and  Lower  Peru,  and  is  a 
place  of  great  business  and  wealth.  The  other  considera- 
ble towns  in  this  department,  are  Pilaya,  the  capital  of  a 
province  of  the  same  name,  containing  12,000  inhabitants  ; 
it  enjoys  a  fine  climate,  and  is  surrounded  with  a  fertile 
country;  Tarija,  situated  in  lat.  21°  30'  south,  in  a  delight- 
ful valley  of  the  same  name,  and  has  a  population  of  10, 
000,  Tupiza,  Lipiz,  Tarapaca,  St.  Francisco  de  Atacama 
near  the  Pacific. 

The  intqiidancy  of  Charcas  or  La  Plata  is  watered  by  the 
river  Pilcornayo,  and  its  branch,  the  Cachimayo,  which  flow 
into  the  La  Plata,  and  are  celebrated  for  the  abundance  and 
excellence  of  their  fish,  their  banks  are  clothed  with  verdure 
and  covered  with  forests.  This  is  an  excellent  agricultural 
district,  its  climate  is  generally  warm,  and  it  has  some  vine- 
yards and  sugar  plantations  ;  abounding  with  cultivated  farms, 
and  affording  fine  cattle  and  sheep,  wheat,  and  excellent  fruits. 
There  are  few  mines  in  it. 

Charcas  the  capital,  in  lat.  19°  S.  is  distant  75  miles  north- 
east of  Potosi,  and  was  founded  by  one  of  Pizarro's  captains, 
in  the  year  1538,  and  stands  on  a  plain,  surrounded  on  every 
side  by  several  small  hills,  with  a  fine  climate.  The  streets 
cross  each  other  at  right  angles,  are  very  wide  and  well  pa- 
ved. The  houses  are  regularly  built  one  story  high,  with 
balconies  of  wood,  and  spacious  gardens  in  the  rear  ;  its  pop- 
ulation at  present  does  not  exceed  15,000.  The  cathedral  is 
a  very  magnificent  edifice  ;  the  gate  is  of  copper,  very  massy 
and  much  ornamented.  The  palace  of  the  arch  bishop  is  a 
splendid  building,  with  grand  saloons  and  spacious  gardens 
with  fountains  of  water  ;  and  it  is  furnished  in  a  princely  style. 
There  are  also  five  convents,  three  nunneries,  an  university, 
two  colleges,  and  an  academy  for  law-students.  In  the  uni- 
versity and  colleges,  there  are  about  five  hundred  students  who 

this  process  is  through,  the  mass  is  removed  into  vats,  where  the 
earth  is  washed  off,  and  the  amalgam  is  found  at  the  bottom,  which 
is  put  into  bags  and  hung  up  for  the  quicksilver  to  drain  off;  the  bags 
are  beaten  and  pressed,  and  finally  the  amalgam  is  hardened,  and  the 
remaining  quicksilver  evaporated  by  means  of  ignited  charcoal* 
What  remains,  is  a  lump  of  grains  of  silver,  which  require  to  bte  fu- 
sed to  unite  them  into  a  mass. 

32* 


166  HISTORY    AND    PRESENT    STATE 

come  from  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  city  of  Oruro  is 
situated  in  south  lat.  17°  58',  171  miles  north  west  of  Potosi 
It  is  admirably  located  for  inland  commerce,  and  is  about  170 
miles  east  of  the  port  of  Arica  on  the  Pacific,  and  the  post 
road  from  Buenos  Ayres  to  Lima  passes  through  it ;  there  is 
a  good  mule  road  to  Arica.  The  city  is  built  at  the  foot  of  a 
mineral  mountain  of  the  same  name.  Its  figure  is  a  cres- 
cent ;  it  is  well  laid  out,  and  its  houses  are  regularly  of  one 
story.  It  has  five  convents,  and  its  markets  are  well  suppli- 
ed with  fresh  fish  from  the  ocean.  The  population  is  about 
15,000. 

The  department  of  Cochabamba  forms  an  oblong  tract  of 
land,  extending  from  east  to  west  520  miles,  and  from  north 
to  south  92  miles.  The  western  section  of  this  territory  is 
traversed  by  the  lofty  Andes,  from  which  there  is  a  gradual 
slope,  or  gentle  declivity  from  the  west  until  it  is  lost  in  the 
interminable  plains  on  the  east.  This  district  of  country  is 
well  watered  by  the  head  branches  of  the  Amazon,  and  pos- 
sesses every  variety  of  soil  and  climate.  On  the  summits  of 
the  mountains,  eternal  winter  reigns,  while  the  plains  below 
are  covered  with  perpetual  verdure.  The  fecundity  of  nature 
is  here  displayed  in  all  its  richness  and  beauty  ;  all  the  ani- 
mals and  vegetables  of  every  class  and  variety,  attract  the  cu- 
riosity of  the  observer  ;  trees  and  plants  innumerable,  cover 
the  soil  with  prodigious  abundance,  and  fill  the  atmosphere 
with  a  salubrity  and  fragrance  beyond  any  other  region. 
Among  the  agricultural  productions,  are  wheat,  vines,  and  the 
olive,  in  the  greatest  abundance,  the  choicest  fruits  of  both 
temperate  and  tropical  climates ;  and  so  productive  is  the 
country  in  grass,  that  its  name  in  the  dialect  of  the  aboriginal 
inhabitants,  means  rich  grass.  This  territory  as  might  be  sup- 
posed, of  such  extraordinary  excellence,  in  both  its  animal 
and  vegetable  productions,  is  not  rich  in  mineral  treasures. 
Its  population  is  estimated  at  115,000  consisting  principally  of 
industrious  farmers  and  skilful  mechanics,  distinguished  for 
their  intelligence.  The  capital  is  the  city  of  Oropesa,  or  Co- 
chabamba, in  south  lat.  18°  31',  situated  on  a  beautiful  plain 
near  the  river  Sacabo.  The  city  is  square,  and  the  streets, 
which  are  spacious,  cross  each  other  at  right  angles.  It  con- 
tains five  convents  and  two  nunneries,  with  a  population  of 
25,000. 

The  department  of  La  Paz,  has  a  population  of  110,000, 
exclusive  of  Indians.  The  western  section  of  this  territory 
is  an  extensive  plain,  bordering  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
great  lake  Titicaca,  The  climate  is  cold  on  account  of  its 
proximity  to  the  Andes,  and  its  productions  are  principally  po- 


OF   THE    REPUBLIC    OP    BOLIVAR.  167 

tatoes  and  barley.  The  appearance  of  the  mountain  Illumani  is 
wonderfully  grand,  particularly  when  seen  in  the  night  time 
from  the  city  of  La  Paz,  situated  in  the  vallies  below,  at  a  dis 
tance  of  thirty  miles. 

This  territory  abounds  with  valuable  silver  mines,  and  many 
fertile  vallies :  its  waters  are  chiefly  imbodied  in  the  great 
lake  Titicaca  which  forms  its  western  boundary.  This  lake  is 
about  240  miles  in  circumference,  its  medium-width  is  about 
30  miles,  containing  several  beautiful  islands.  Its  borders  are 
picturesque  and  covered  with  villages,  and  cultivated  fields. 
It  abounds  with  excellent  fish,  and  on  its  shores  and  islands 
are  found  great  numbers  of  water-fowl,  of  various  species. 
The  waters  of  the  eastern  section  of  this  department  consists 
principally  of  the  river  Tipuani,  and  its  branches.  This  river 
pours  down  from  the  eastern  Andes,  like  a  torrent,  and  flow- 
ing with  an  impetuous  and  roaring  current,  a  distance  of  120 
miles,  through  the  narrow  defiles  of  the  mountains  in  a  north- 
erly direction  to  the  valley  of  Tipuani,  it  unites  with  the 
Challana  which  rises  in  the  same  chain  of  mountains,  and 
assumes  the  name  of  Beni ;  here  it  loses  its  rapdity,  and 
flows  with  a  smooth  and  even  current  towards  the  coast.  The 
river  Beni  after  a  course  of  several  hundred  miles,  in  a  north 
easterly  direction,  unites  with  the  Madeira,  and  these  uni« 
ted  waters  constitute  the  great  southern  branch  of  the  Ama- 
zon. 

The  capital  of  this  department,  is  the  city  of  La  Paz,  situa- 
ted in  lat.  16  30'  south,  180  miles  east  of  the  Pacific.  It  lies 
in  a  hollow,  considerably  below  the  elevation  of  the  plains 
which  extend  from  the  eastern  Andes  to  the  lake,  and  is  divi- 
ded by  the  river  Chookeago  which  is  a  branch  of  the  river 
Tipuani.  There  are  four  stone  bridges  across  the  river  ;  the 
streets  are  rectangular  and  well  paved,  and  the  houses  are 
principally  built  of  stone,  of  two  and  three  stories  high,  many 
of  them  exhibiting  much  taste  and  elegance  in  their  structure. 
In  the  public  square  there  are  some  splendid  edifices  ;  in  the 
centre,  stands  a  fountain  of  water,  constructed  of  transparent 
alabaster.  There  are  four  convents,  three  nunneries,  five  pa- 
rochial churches,  a  college  and  an  alms-house,  where  the  poor 
are  entertained.  The  city  stands  at  the  base  of  the  peak  of 
Ilimani,  which  overlooks  it,  and  whose  snowy  summit  and 
verdant  sides  exhibit  a  splendid  view.  The  plains  which  sur- 
round the  city  are  clothed  in  perpetual  verdure,  are  very  fer- 
tile, supplying  it  with  all  kinds  of  vegetables.  The  population 
of  the  city  is  40,000. 

The  department  of  Santa  Cruz  or  Puno,  is  well  watered  by 
fho  Rio  Grande  and  other  head  waters  of  the  Marnore,  a 


168  HISTORY  AND  PRESENT  STATE 

branch  of  the  Amazon.  Its  population  is  10,000,  and  it  k 
divided  into  two  provinces,  Misque  and  Santa  Cruz,  from  which 
the  department  takes  its  name.  The  province  of  Misque  is 
comprised  in  its  western  section,  enjoying  a  warm  climate. 
The  chief  town,  which  is  of  the  same  name,  stands  in  a  fine 
valley,  of  twenty-four  miles  in  circumference,  with  a  popula- 
tion of  12,000.  This  is  an  extremely  fertile  province,  produ- 
cing, in  great  abundance,  corn,  sugar,  grapes,  bees  wax,,  and 
honey.  The  province  of  Santa  Cruz  is  situated  east  of  Misque. 
The  chief  town  is  of  the  same  name,  and  is  the  capital,  situ- 
ated in  lat.  17°  4 9' south,  at  the  foot  of  a  small  range  of  moun- 
tains. The  productions  of  this  province  are  the  same  as  those 
of  Misque,  but  cultivation  is  more  neglected  ;  there  are  no 
mines  in  the  district. 

Moxos  arid  Chiquitos  are  departments  of  great  extent  of  ter- 
ritory, but  small  population.  Moxos  extends  from  north  to 
south  360  miles,  and  nearly  the  same  distance  east  and  west. 
It  is  watered  by  three  rivers,  Berii,  Mamore,  and  Santa  Cruz, 
which,  rising  in  the  eastern  Andes,  flow  into  the  Amazon. 
Chiquitos  lies  south-east  of  Moxos,  east  of  Santa  Cruz,  and 
west  of  the  river  Paraguay,  and  is  a  country  of  great  extent, 
but  thinly  settled.  The  territory  of  Moxos  and  Chiquitos  ex- 
tend from  lat.  14Q  to  20°  south,  embracing  an  extensive  and 
fertile  tract  of  country  mostly  in  a  state  of  nature,  and  without 
cultivation,  but  possessing  immense  natural  resources,  and  ca- 
pable of  sustaining  a  vast  population  in  affluence.  The  cli- 
mate of  these  intendancies  is  like  the  East-Indies,  with  half 
yearly  alternations  of  rainy  and  dry  seasons,  and  the  produc- 
tions are  similar  ;  cinnamon  is  produced  in  abundance.  The 
rivers  and  lakes  abound  with  fish;  honey  is  also  collected  in 
great  quantities  in  the  forests.  The  silk  worm  abounds,  and 
the  mulberry,  on  which  it  feeds,  is  a  common  tree  of  the  coun- 
try. The  intendancies  or  departments  are  divided  into  pro- 
vinces, and  the  latter  into  curacies  or  parishes,  like  Peru,  in 
each  of  which  there  is  a  curate,  a  cacique,  and  an  alcade. 

The  territories  of  the  new  republic  of  Bolivar,  are  an  inte- 
rior country,  embracing  only  about  three  degrees  of  coast  on 
the  Pacific  ;  yet  no  portion  of  South  America  possesses  a 
more  salubrious  climate,  or  more  exuberant  soil,  variety  of 
productions,  or  inexhaustible  mineral  treasures.  Although  its 
territory  is  not  so  extensive  as  some  of  the  other  republics, 
and  is  almost  without  sea  coast;  yet  so  abundant  are, the  re- 
sources of  the  soil  and  mines,  that  it  is  capable  of  sustaining 
a  large  population,  and  of  becoming  a  wealthy  and  prosperous 
republic.  A  free  and  stable  government,  with  just  and  lib- 
eral institution?,  securing  to  all  classes  of  people  their  right's* 


OF    THE    REPUBLIC    OP    BOLIVAR.  169 


protecting  and  encouraging  their  industry,  and  diffusing  among 
them  the  light  of  knowledge,  by  means  of  education,  is  all 
that  is  necessary  to  ensure  prosperity  to  this  country.  Its  pop- 
ulation has  been  estimated  at  1 ,740,000,  considerably  exceed- 
ing that  of  Peru ;  its  character  is  similar,  but  perhaps  more 
hardy  and  industrious.  There  are  more  Indians,  Mestizos, 
and  Cholos,  but  less  Negroes  and  Mulattoes  than  in  Peru. 
The  Indians  alone  amount  to  1,155,000.  They  are  sober  and 
honest,  and  have  the  most  persevering  habits  of  industry  ; 
they  make  good  agriculturists  and  labourers  of  every  kind, 
and  are  very  robust,  muscular,  and  free  from  diseases.  They 
perform  all  the  heavy  work  of  the  country,  without  the  aid  of 
machinery,  carrying  on  their  shoulders  150  pounds.  The  Mes- 
tizos and  Cholos  usually  possess  moderate  fortunes  ;  they 
carry  on  most  of  the  internal  commerce  of  the  country,  and 
superintend  the  Haciendas,  or  plantations  of  the  men  of  for- 
tune. They  are  expert  mechanics,  and  have  astonishing  fac- 
;ulties  of  imitation.* 

The  vegetable  productions  of  the  republic  are  similar  to 
Peru,  comprising  those  of  both  temperate  and  tropical  climates, 
all  in  the  greatest  abundance,  and  almost  spontaneously. — 
Among  those  more  rare  or  peculiar  to  the  country,  are  cinna 
mott,  the  potatoe,  which  is  believed  to  be  indigenous  in  this  re- 
gion ;  o/ra,  a  sweet  root  and  important  article  of  food ;  gui- 
nea, or  Peruvian  rice,  much  used  as  a  grain  for  food,  and  from 
which,  together  with  Indian  corn,  a  liquor  is  made,  called  chi- 
ca,  of  universal  use  among  the  Indians  ;  agi,  or  Guinea  pep- 
per ;  coca,  a  bitter  herb,  which  constitutes  the  tobacco  of  the 
Indians,  and  is  extensively  used  ;  quinquina,  or  Peruvian  bark, 
Manilla  and  ginger.  The  forests  abound  with  various  gums, 
fesins,  and  balsams,  and  the  mountains  with  common,  epsom 
&nd  glauber  salts,  nitre,  green  vitriol,  native  soda,  and  riumer 
bus  other  mineral  substances. 

The  Llama  and  other  animals  mentioned  in  Peru,  are  com- 
mon  in  this  country  ;  the  cochineal  insect  is  reared  with  great- 
er facility  than  in  Mexico.  A  large  proportion  of  the  pro- 
ducts from  the  mines  exported  from  Peru,  has  been  from  the 
territories  of  this  republic.  From  15e  to  23Q  south  latitude, 

*  In  1801,  a  Swede,  with  a  company  of  equestrian  performers,  ar- 
rived at  Lima,  and  after  obtaining  permission  of  the  king,  proceeded 
into  the  interior  to  Cusco,  and  exhibited  their  performances,  to  the 
delight  and  astonishment  of  the  inhabitants.  The  young  Cbolos 
soon  began  to  imitate  the  feats  they  had  witnessed,  and  with  such 
succe-%  that  in  a  short  time  they  could  perform  all  the  frats  of  the 
equestrians,  who,  with  astonishment,  viewed  the  streets  filled  with 
performers,  which  obliged  them  to  abandon  their  enterprise. 


170     HISTORY  AND  PRESENT  STATE,  $«C, 

there  are  twenty-two  silver  and  eleven  gold  mines,  which  have 
been  worked,  besides  gold  washings  found  in  the  river  Tipau 
ni  and  its  numerous  branches.  The  precious  metals  extract- 
ed from  these  mines  have  been  estimated  at  $14,000,000,  an- 
nually ;  and  the  coin  and  bullion  exported,  at  $8,240,000, 
Gold  is  found  every  where  on  the  banks  of  the  Tipauni  by 
digging  a  sufficient  depth,  and  finer  in  its  native  state  by  a 
carat  and  a  half  than  the  gold  coin  of  the  United  States.  The 
gold  is  found  mixed  with  a  hard  blue  clay,  which  is  all  taken 
out  together,  and  the  clay  separated  by  washing  in  canals  pre- 
pared for  the  purpose.  The  annual  product  of  the  river  Ti- 
pauni has  been  35,200  ounces,  worth  $16  per  ounce. 

The  commerce  of  this  country  is  almost  entirely  inland ;  it 
has  maintained  an  extensive  interior  trade  with  Peru  and  Bue- 
nos Ayres  ;  the  former  has  been  estimated  at  nearly  $7,000,- 
000,  and  the  goods  received  from  the  latter,  at  $18,000,000, 
previous  to  the  revolution,  part  of  which  must  have  been  con- 
sumed in  Lower  Peru.     Foreign  goods  have  been  introduced 
either  through  Lima  or  Buenos  Ayres.     The  Spaniards  and 
Creoles  hitherto  have  been  almost  the  only  consumers  of  fo- 
reign goods,  as  the  Indians  and  mixed  races  have  used  the 
manufactures  of  the  country,  consisting  of  coarse  cottons  and 
baizes,  the  king  having  prohibited  the  fulling  and  dressing  of 
cloths.     The  consumption  of  foreign  goods  must  now  increase 
rapidly  and  to  a  very  great  extent,  as  the  freedom  of  the  In* 
dians  and  Mestizos  will  cause  them  to  imitate  the  manners  and 
style  of  the  whites.     The  churches,  monasteries,  nunneries, 
and  convents  in  this  republic  are  numerous,  and  have  amassed 
wealth  to  an  extent  almost  incredible,  even  in  a  country  abound- 
ing in  the  precious  metals.     All  the  vessels  and  chandeliers 
of  the  churches  are  of  silver  or  gold,  and  the  altars  and  even, 
the  pulpits  are  often  covered  with  silver  ;  but  the  greatest 
wealth  is  hoarded  in  the  nunneries  and  monasteries.  Don  Vin- 
cente  Pozos  says  that  he  saw,  in  a  nunnery  in  La  Paz,  two 
boxes,  each  of  four  feet  and  a  half  long,  and  two  feet  broad,  fill- 
ed with  doubloons.  The  republic,  in  August,  1825,  by  its  rep- 
resentations declared  its  independence,  not  only  of  Spain,  but 
of  both  Lower  Peru  and  the  United  Provinces  of  Rio  de  la 
Plata,  and  took  the  name  of  BOLIVAR,  who  liberated  it  from 
the  dominion  of  Spain.     It  has,  at  present,  only  a  provisional 
government,  not  having  yet  adopted   a  constitution.      Gen- 
eral Sucre   was  appointed  by  the  congress  captain-general 
of  the  republic,  and  commander  of  the  military  force  ;  the 
departments  are  under  the  government  of  an  officer  called  a 
president. 


HISTORY 
OF  THE  REVOLUTION 


IN    THE 


REPUBLIC  OF  BOLIVAR. 


CHAPTER  XL 

Revolution  breaks  out  in  La  Paz — a  government  is  established — - 
the  patriots  are  attacked  by  the  royalists,  dispersed,  and  the 
rity  sacked — Buenos  Ayres  sends  an  army  to  Peru ;  it  is  at 
first  successful,  but  finally  defeated,  and  Peru  lost — the  revolu- 
tion breaks  out  again — Cochabamba  is  sacked,  and  its  inhab- 
itants massacred — retaken  by  the  patriots — the  royalists  drive 
the  patriots  from  La  Paz,  covering  it  with  desolation — an  ar- 
my of  Buenos  Jlyres  again  advances  into  Peru — it  is  defeated 
at  Sipesipe — the  war  kept  up  by  several  guerrilla  leaders — the 
country  emancipated  by  the  victory  of  Jlyacucho — Sucre  pro- 
ceeds to  Upper  Peril,  and  all  the  royal  troops  surrender — Chi- 
quitos  invaded  by  the  Brazillians — a  congress  convened,  whi  ch 
declares  the  country  independent  and  passes  several  decrees. 

THE  seven  intendencies,  now  departments,  composing  the 
Bolivarian  republic,  belonged  to  the  viceroyal  jurisdiction  of 
Peru,  until  1778,  when  they  were  annexed  to  the  viceroyalty  of 
Rio  de  la  Plata.  They  were  not,  however,  embraced  in  the  ju- 
risdiction of  the  royal  audience  of  Lima,  but  constituted  a  dis- 
tinct jurisdiction,  called  the  district  or  audiencia  of  Charcas, 
and  the  city  of  that  name  was  the  seat  of  government  of  the 
yoyal  audiencia.  This  territory  suffered  severely  during  the 
rebellion  of  Tupac  Amaru,  in  1 780,  many  of  its  cities  being 
almost  desolated,  and  one  third  of  its  whole  population  destroy- 
ed by  the  war. 


172  HISTORY    OF    THE    REVOLUTION 

This  country  has  poured  its  blood  prodigally  in  the  late  rev- 
olutionary struggles,  and  has  experienced  the  singular  ill-for- 
tune of  having  the  first  and  the  last  scenes  of  the  bloody  dra- 
ma exhibited  within  its  territory  ;  of  being  the  first  to  throw 
off  the  Spanish  yoke,  and  the  last  to  be  redeemed  from  its  do- 
minion. Upper  Peru  and  its  borders,  the  neighbouring  prov- 
inces of  Salta  and  Jujuy  have  been  the  theatres  of  war  during 
almost  the  whole  revolution  ;  but  as  the  operations  on  the  part 
of  the  patriots  were  carried  on  by  the  popular  government  of 
Buenos  Ayres,  or  the  United  Provinces,  and  are  closely  com- 
bined with  the  events  of  the  revolution  there,  we  have  deemed 
it  advisable  to  relate  them  in  connection  with  the  history  of  the 
revolution  in  that  republic.  Some  events,  however,  which 
occurred  in  this  territory,  less  connected  with  the  struggle  in 
the  United  Provinces,  will  be  noticed  here. 

In  the  city  of  La  Paz,  distinguished  for  the  intelligence, 
bravery  and  wealth  of  its  inhabitants,  the  flame  of  the  revolu- 
tion first  burst  forth,  and  such  was  the  implacable  fury  which 
it  excited  in  the  breasts  of  the  royal  chiefs,  that  it  served  im- 
mediately to  light  the  torch  of  civil  war,  which  to  the  inhabit- 
ants of  this  devoted  city,  became  a  consuming  fire.     After  wit- 
nessing the  subversion  of  the  Spanish  monarchy,  and  the  sub- 
sequent establishment  of  a  government  in  the  peninsula,  emana- 
ting from  the  people,  the  inhabitants  claiming  the  same  rights 
as  those  of  old  Spain,  and  believing  it  disgraceful  to  remain  in 
the  same  state  of  apathy  as  they  had  during  the  war  for  the 
succession  to  the  crown  of  Spain,  convened  in  a  public  meet- 
ing on  the  25th  of  March,  1809,  to  consider  their  political  sit- 
uation.    They  deposed  the  Spanish  authorities,  and  erected  a 
provisional  government  called  a  Junta  Tuitiva,  and  published 
a  manifesto,  maintaining  their  right  of  governing  themselves, 
as  Spain  had  done.     Authorities  were  established  for  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice,  and  soon  the  junta  found  it  necessary 
to  raise  an  armed  force,  to  defend  the  new  government  against 
the  hostile  designs  of  the  royal  chiefs.      An  army  was  sent 
against  them  by  Cisneros,  the  viceroy  of  Buenos  Ayres,  under 
Nieto,  and  another  by  the  viceroy  of  Lima,  commanded  by 
Goyeneche,  which  were  expected  to  form  a  junction  ;  but  Goy- 
eneche,  without  waiting  for  the  arrival  of  Nieto,  stormed  the 
city  of  La  Paz,  which  not  being  in  a  situation  for  defence, 
was  obliged  to  surrender  ;  not,  however,  without  a  resolute 
resistance.     The  monster  Goyeneche,  immediately  caused  all 
the  principal  citizens  to  be  arrested  and  thrown  into  prison, 
who  for  several  days  were  sent  to  the  scaffold  without  trial  an4 
without  discrimination.     At  length  it  was  thought  expedient 
to  give  some  colour  or  form  to  this  massacre,  and  Goyeneche 


IN    THE    REPUBLIC    OP   BOLIVAR.  173 

applied  to  Cisneros,  who,  instead  of  restraining  this  bloody 
assassin,  decreed  that  all  who  remained  in  prison  should  be 
executed  ;  but,  fortunately,  before  this  tyrant  had  carried  this 
sanguinary  decree  into  execution,  the  revolution  broke  out  in 
Buenos  Ayres,  which  wrested  the  bloody  sceptre  from  his 
hands,  and  saved  the  lives  of  the  remaining  prisoners.  Such, 
however,  had  been  the  work  of  death  and  desolation,  that  La 
Paz  had  become  like  a  desert.  Filled  with  terror  or  revenge,  by 
such  horrid  barbarities,  its  inhabitants  who  escaped  massacre  or 
confinement,  fled  to  the  forests  and  mountains,  whither  they 
were  pursued  by  the  royal  troops,  and  such  was  their  horror 
at  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  that  except  a  few  who 
escaped,  they  all  either  fell  in  battle  or  perished  with  famine. 
The  leaders  of  this  unfortunate  revolution  were  the  two 
Lanzas  and  Rodriguez,  who  were  among  its  victims.* 

After  the  revolution  broke  out  in  Buenos  Ayres,  more  than 
a  year  from  the  commencement  of  that  at  La  Paz,  the  popu- 
lar government  which  was  established,  was  immediately  threat- 
ened by  the  royalists  who  had  collected  from  all  quarters  in 
Upper  Peru.     An  army  was  sent  against  them  commanded  by 
Ocampo,  which  dispersed  them  ;  this  army  was  re-enforced, 
and  the  command  given  to  general   Balcarce.     The  royalist 
army  of  Peru,  under  Sanz,  governor  of  Potosi,  Nieto,  presi- 
dent of  the   audience   of  Charcas  and  Cordova,  fortified  an 
advantageous  position,  at  Suypacha,  where  they  were  attacked 
by  Balcarce  and  completely  routed.     The  patriot  general  fol- 
lowing up  his  advantages,  attacked  them  at  Tupiza  with  equal 
success  ;  the  royal  chiefs  were  captured  and  shot.     Nieto 
was  cut  short  in  his  career  of  tyranny  ;  he  had  treated  the  gar- 
rison at  Charcas  with  the  greatest  severity  and  cruelty,  con- 
demning all  who  were  suspected  of  entertaining  opinions  fa- 
vourable to  the  patriots,  to  hard  labour  in  the  mines.     The 
rapacity  of  this  man  was  equal  to  his  tyranny  ;  in  less  than  one 
year  after  entering  into  his  office  he  is  said  to  have  accumula- 
ted  one  hundred  thousand  dollars.     The  successes  of  the  pat- 
riots enabled  them  to  advance  to  the  river  Desaguedero,  on 
the  left  bank  of  which  they  extended  their  line  occupying  the 
villages  of  Saxa,  Guaqui,  and  several  others.     Balcarce  had 
6,000  men  and  the  royal  army  commanded  by  Goyeneche   of 
about  5,000  was  at  the  village  of  Desaguedero.     The  patriots 
had  hitherto  been  victorious ;  in  every  town  through  which  they 
passed,  the  people  received  them  with  acclamations,  and  Abas 
eal  the  viceroy  of  Lima,  trembled  for  the  safety  of  his  govern- 
ment.    He  consented  to  have  the  cabildo  of  Lima  open 

*  Pazos*  Letters,  p.  Si. 
VOL,  U>  83 


171  HISTORY    OF    THE    REVOLUTION 

gotiation  with  Castelli,  who  accompanied  the  army  as  the  rep- 
resentative of  the  popular  government  of  Buenos  Ayres  ; 
the  result  was  an  armistice  for  forty  days  which  only  served 
to  afford  the  royalists  time  to  prepare  to  renew  hostilities 
Availing  himself  of  this  opportunity,  Goyeneche,  made 
every  exertion  to  rouse  the  superstitions  of  his  troogs,  and 
to  excite  among  them  a  religious  enthusiasm.  The  troops 
from  Buenos  Ayres  from  their  intercourse  with  .strangers,  were 
more  enlightened  than  those  of  Peru,  and  manifested  but  lit- 
tle respect  for  the  religious  worship  of  the  Peruvians,  which 
consisted  only  of  external  forms  and  unmeaning  ceremonies. 
Goyeneche  told  his  troops,  principally  Indians  and  Mestizos 
from  Cusco,  miserably  ignorant  and  superstitious,  that  the  Bue- 
nos Ayreans  had  come  into  the  country  to  destroy  their  reli- 
gion, and  that  they  were  the  enemies  of  God  and  the  king  ; 
and  the  more  effectually  to  inflame  their  religious  zeal  he  pro- 
claimed to  the  whole  army,  that  the  Virgin  del  Carmen  was  the 
commander  in  chief,  and  himself  only  her  lieutenant.  His 
exertions  were  too  successful,  his  troops  were  filled  with  en- 
thusiasm, which  inspired  them  with  courage  ;  and  taking  ad- 
vantage of  these  favourable  circumstances,  Goyeneche>  with- 
out waiting  for  the  expiration  of  the  armistice,  on  the  20th 
July  1811,  attacked  the  patriots  at  Guaqui  with  great  fury, 
and  completely  routed  them  ;  so  great  was  their  panic,  that 
they  fled,  leaving  all  their  artillery  and  baggage  on  the  field  of 
battle. 

After  this  unfortunate  defeat,  the  patriots  never  regained 
possession  of  Upper  Peru,  but  it  remained  under  the  domin- 
ion of  the  royalists  until  liberated  by  Sucre  after  the  victory  of 
Ayacucho.  In  February,  1813,  Belgrano,  at  Salta,  defeated 
general  Tristan,  commanding  the  advance  corps  of  the  royal- 
ists, and  captured  his  whole  army.  This  compelled  Goyene- 
che to  retire  from  Potosi,  and  rekindled  the  fire  of  the  revolu- 
tion throughout  Upper  Peru.  The  people  were  roused  to 
arms,  in  the  intendancy  of  La  Paz,  and  Cochabamba.  The 
revolutionists,  principally  Indians,  besieged  the  city  of  La  Paz, 
and  Arce  the  leader  of  the  patriots  in  Cochabamba,  drove  the 
Spaniards  from  that  province,  took  possession  of  its  capi- 
tal, and  established  a  junta  for  its  government.  Goyeneche 
juarched  with  his  best  troops  against  the  patriots  of  Cochabam- 
ba, and  as  he  drew  near  the  city,  it  was  proposed  by  the  pres- 
ident of  the  junta,  to  implore  the  clemency  of  the  royal  chief, 
but  the  people  opposed  it,  as  they  preferred  the  horrors  of  war 
to  submission  in  any  form  to  their  oppressors.  The  city  was 
Defended  with  matchless  valour  and  resolution  ;  the  inhabitants 
fought  with  the  utmost  fury  and  desperation,  which  nothing 
tjrranny  and  cruelt/  could  inspire  j  the  women  mixed 


IN    THE    REPUBLIC   OP    BOLIVAR.  175 

promiscously  with  the  men  and  combatted  with  equal  ardour 
and  courage  regardless  alike  of  hardships  and  danger.  But 
the  patriots  had  more  bravery  than  discipline  ;  their  efforts 
were  irregular  ;  and  they  were  in  a  great  measure  destitute  of 
arms,  but  fought  with  the  best  weapons  they  could  raise. 
After  a  most  fearful  struggle,  the  royalists  entered  the  city  over 
the  dead  bodies  of  its  inhabitants  and  what  survived  were  de- 
voted to  massacre  and  rapine.  The  city  was  delivered  up  to 
the  lawless  plunder  of  a  ferocious  soldiery,  and  exhibited  a 
picture  of  desolation  and  horror.  The  president  of  the  junta, 
Antesana,  who  had  sought  an  asylum  in  a  <  onvent,  was  drag- 
ged forth,  beheaded,  his  head  placed  on  a  pike,  and  carried  in 
triumph  through  the  streets  of  the  city.*  Whilst  Goyeneche 
was  engaged  in  suppressing  the  insurrection  in  Cochabamba, 
one  broke  out  near  Potosi,  in  the  provinces  of  Chayante  and 
Paria,  whither  he  sent  a  body  of  troops  commanded  by,  Emas, 
whose  cruelties  exceeded  those  of  his  master.  Devastation 
and  murder  marked  his  path  ;  he  laid  waste  more  than  sixty 
villages  with  fire  and  sword,  and  converted  the  country  into  a 
desert.  Having  become  weary  of  putting  the  inhabitants  to 
death,  this  savage  indulged  himself  in  the  brutal  sport  of  cut- 
ting off  the  ears  of  the  patriots  to  mark  them,  and  then  setting 
them  at  liberty. 

The  royal  army  was  re-enforced  by  troops  from  Lima  un- 
der Pezuela,  who  assumed  the  command,  and  in  two  actions, 
one  fought  at  Vilcapugio,  the  other^at  Ayoma,  defeated,  and 
nearly  destroyed,  the  army  of  Buenos  Ayres,  under  JBelgra- 
no,  making  the  royalists  master  of  the  whole  of  Upper  Peru. 
But  dominion  over  the  country  did  not  subdue  the  spirit  of 
the  people,  and  the  standard  of  revolt  was  again  raised  in 
different  quarters.  The  Cochabambians  who  survived,  had 
fled,  and  united  in  the  Valle  Grande,  where,  impelled  by  de- 
spair and  revenge,  they  made  a  furious  charge  on  a  division  of 
1,000  royalists,  and  cut  them  to  pieces  ;  then  uniting  with  the 
patriots  of  Santa  Cruz,  under  Warnes,  an  intrepid  leader,  they 
again  liberated  the  intendancy  of  Cochabamba.  The  hopes 
of  the  people  were  once  more  revived,  and  the  spirit  of  revolt 
appeared  in  every  province  ;  a  partizan  warfare  was  carried 
on  with  success.  Warnes  marched  into  Chiquitos,  where  he 
defeated  the  royalists  ;  general  Chamargo  liberated  and  took 
possession  of  the  province  of  Chayante  and  Padilla,  defeated 
the  royalists  under  Tacon  at  Yampares.  In  the  meantime 
the  spirit  of  resistance  revived  in  La  Paz,  where  Pinelo  and 
^lunecas  a  priest  succeeded  in  taking  possession  of  the  city. 

Pazos'  Letters, 


176  HISTORY    OF   THE   REVOLUUTION 

Nothing  could  equal  the  rage  which  these  successes  occasion- 
ed in  the  royalits  ;  such  was  their  frantic  fury  that  they  poi- 
soned all  the  springs  of  water  in  La  Paz,  and  undermined,  and 
blew  up  a  barrack,  killing  300  of  the  patriots.  These  diabol- 
ical and  incendiary  deeds  excited  such  vengeance  in  the  in- 
habitants, that  they  cut  the  throats  of  every  European  Span- 
iard in  the  city.  Such  bloody  scenes  drew  Pezuela  to  La 
Paz,  and  the  patriots  retiring  to  Desaguedero,  where  they 
were  pursued,  and  completely  routed  by  the  royalists,  compel- 
led Pinelo  and  Munecas  to  retire  towards  Cusco.  One  of 
the  leaders  of  the  insurgents  was  an  Indian  of  the  name  of 
Pomakagua,  who  marched  to  Arequipa,  which  he  attacked, 
and  after  severe  fighting  defeated  the  royalists,  and  took  pos- 
session of  the  place,  making  prisoners,  the  royal  governor  and 
commander  in  chief.  Pezuela  and  Ramires  marched  in  pursuit 
of  him  ;  he  evacuated  Arequipa,  and  was  attacked  near  the 
river  Ayavere,  and  defeated,  after  displaying  prodigies  of 
valour.  He  was  taken  prisoner,  and  sent  to  Cusco,  where 
he  was  executed  with  several  other  of  the  leaders  of  the  rev- 
olution.* 

The  spirit  of  resistance,  which  prevailed  in  Upper  Peru, 
encouraged  Rondeau,  at  the  head  of  the  army  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  to  advance  into  the  country  ;  and  having  defeated  the 
enemy  at  Mochares  and  Pueto  Grande  he  established  his 
head  quarters  at  Potosi.  He  took  possession  of  Cochabam- 
ba,  and  despatched  Rodriguez  at  the  head  of  a  division  sta- 
tioned to  keep  open  the  communication  between  that  city,  and 
Potosi.  Rodriguez  was  repulsed,  which  compelled  Rondeau 
to  fight  the  battle  of  Sipesipe,  in  which,  after  a  most  obstinate 
contest,  he  was  defeated.  The  Cochabambians  had  prepar- 
ed triumphal  arches,  to  honor  their  brethren  in  arms,  who  they 
expected  would  have  been  victorious  ;  instead,  however,  of  be- 
holding a  triumph,  they  were  compelled  to  witness  the  sacking 
of  their  city,  the  second  time,  and  a  repetition  of  those  scenes 
of  blood  and  carnage,  which  had  spread  over  it  the  face  of 
desolation.!  After  the  defeat  of  Rondeau,  the  dissentions 
among  the  different  parties  and  factions  in  the  United  Pro- 
vinces, prevented  their  prosecuting  the  war  with  success  on 
the  frontier  of  Peru  ;  and  the  government  of  Buenos  Ayres 
never  regained  possession  of  the  upper  provinces.  A  parti- 

*  This  noble  Indian,  took  part  with  the  king  in  the  revolution  cf 
Tupac  Amaru,  which  so  recommended  him  to  royal  favour  that  he 
was  appointed  a  brigadier  general  in  the  Spanish  army,  and  had  co.n« 
serred  on  him  the  seighory  of  his  town. 

f  Pazos'  Letters. 


IN   THE   REPUBLIC   OP   BOLIVAR.  177 

san  or  guerrilla  warfare,  however,  was  maintained,  and  often 
with  success,  by  Padilla,  Warnes,  Rivera,  Calla,  and  numer- 
ous other  leaders,  which  contributed  to  occupy  tjje  attention, 
aiid  the  forces  of  Pezuela,  who  was  now  appointed  viceroy  of 
Peru,  and  to  weaken  the  royal  authority.  The  Spaniards 
however,  maintained  their  dominion  in  the  territories  of  the 
Boliverian  republic  until  1825  ;  it  was  the  last  strong  hold  of 
their  power  in  America,  from  whence  they  annoyed  the  neigh- 
bouring independent  territories.  The  glory  of  the  illustrious 
individual  whose  name  it  bears,  would  not  have  been  con> 
plete,  had  he  not  added  to  his  former  renown,  that  of  fhe 
emancipation  of  Peru,  thus  becoming  the  liberator,  the  foun- 
der, and  the  father  of  three  independent  republics.  After  the 
great  victory  of  Ayacucho,  general  Sucre  was  directed  te 
proceed  with  the  victorious  liberating  army,  into  Upper  Peru. 
There  was  an  armed  force  in  the  upper  province,  of 
5,  or  6,000  men,  commanded  by  general  Olaneta,  and  station- 
ed in  all  the  principal  towns.  As  the  heroic  Sucre  advanced 
into  the  country,  he  was  not  only  received  with  universal  joy  by 
the  inhabitants,  but  the  royal  corps  at  Cochabamba,  Chiquis- 
aca,  Santa  Cruz,  and  Chica,  spontaneously  abandoned  aa 
unjust  and  sinking  cause,  and  declared  for  the  independence 
of  the  country.  Sucre  advanced  to  Potosi  in  April  1825, 
where  Olaneta  made  what  resistance  he  could  ;  but  was  himself 
slain,  and  all  the  royal  troops  in  Upper  Peru  surrendered  tQ 
the  hero  of  Ayacucho.  The  number  of  men  in  the  upper 
provinces  which  capitulated,  was  5,490,  which  together  with 
those  destroyed,  and  taken  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  in  the 
garrisons  of  Lower  Peru,  made  a  total  of  18,598,  as  the  tro- 
phies of  the  great  victory  of  Ayacucho,  which  holds  that  rank 
in  the  revolution  in  South  America,  that  the  victory  at  York- 
town,  does  in  the  revolution  in  North  America.  About  the 
time  of  the  arrival  of  Sucre  at  Potosi,  the  Intendency  of  Chi- 
quitos, was  invaded  and  taken  possession  of,  by  the  Brazilian 
troops,  from  the  interior  province  of  Mattogrosso  ;  the  Brazil- 
ian commander  informed  Sucre  that  he  had  taken  possession 
of  the  province,  in  pursuance  of  a  capitulation  concluded  be- 
tween the  chief  of  Mattogrosso,  and  the  governor  of  Chiqui- 
tos. Sucre  in  reply  to  this  communication  on  the  llth  of 
May,  says  that  Ramas  the  governor  of  Chiquitos,  had  n« 
power  for  a  negotiation  with  the  authorities  of  Brazil,  that  his 
delivering  up  the  province  of  Chiquitos,  was  an  act  of  treason, 
and  the  occupation  of  it  by  the  Brazilian  general,  an  unprovo-^ 
ked  aggression,  and  that  he  had  ordered  the  commandant  of 
Santa  Cruz^to  march  against  him,  unless  he  immediately  evac- 
uated the  territories  of  Peru.  It  is  supposed  that  this  deci- 

33* 


178  HISTORY    OP   THE    REVOLUTION 

sive  conduct,  caused  the  Brazilians  to  withdraw  from  Chiqui* 
tos. 

The  territories  of  Upper  Peru,  so  long  the  theatre  of  the 
most  fearful  and  terrific  struggles  of  the  revolution,  being  at 
length  entirely  free  from  every  foreign  power,  measures  were 
adopted  to  convene  a  general  congress  of  delegates  from  the 
intendancies,  to  decide  on  their  political  destiny,  whether  they 
would  unite  with  Lower  Peru,  the  United  Provinces,  or  form 
a  separate  and  independent  nation.  The  congress  was  con- 
vened at  Chiquisaca,  and  after  long  deliberation,  on  the  6th  of 
August,  1825,  it  published  a  solemn  declaration  of  the  inde- 
pendence of  Upper  Peru.  They  say  that  at  length  "  the  hap- 
py day  has  arrived,  when  Upper  Peru  has  become  liberated 
from  unjust  power,  from  the  tyrannic  and  wretched  Ferdinand 
VII. ,  and  that  this  fertile  region  has  escaped  the  debasing  re- 
lation of  a  colony  of  Spain  ;  that  it  is  important  to  its  welfare, 
not  to  incorporate  itself  with  any  of  the  co-terminous  repub- 
lics, but  to  erect  itself  into  a  sovereign  and  independent  state, 
in  relation  to  the  new  as  well  as  to  the  old  world  ;  that  the 
provinces  of  Upper  Peru,  firm  and  unanimous  in  their  resolu- 
tion, proclaim  to  the  \yhole  earth,  that  they  will  govern  them- 
selves, under  their  own  constitution,  laws  and  authorities^ 
in  that  way  which  they  may  think  most  conducive  to  the  pros- 
perity of  the  nation,  the  inviolable  support  of  the  Catholic  re- 
ligion, and  the  maintenance  of  the  sacred  rights  of  honour, 
life,  liberty,  equality,  property  and  security.  To  carry  into 
effect  this  determination,  they  bind  themselves  through  this 
sovereign  representation,  by  their  lives,  property,  and  sacred 
honour."  This  declaration  was  signed  by  Jose  Mariano  Ser- 
rano, the  president,  and  fifty- seven  members  of  the  congress. 
It  was  the  direction  of  Bolivar,  that  the  representatives  of  the 
people  should  be  left  entirely  free  in  their  deliberations  and 
decision  on  this  important  question,  and  it  is  supposed  that  he 
was  in  favour  of  these  provinces  uniting  with  Lower  Peru. 
The  congress  decreed  that  the  new  state  should  be  called 
u  THE  REPUBLIC  OF  BOLIVAR,"  in  honour  of  the  liberator  of 
Colombia  and  Peru,  whom  it  acknowledges  as  the  father  of 
the  nation  ;  and  that  he  should  exercise  the  supreme  power, 
whilst  he  remained  in  the  limits  of  the  republic  ;  that  the  6th 
of  August  and  the  9th  of  December,  the  days  on  which  the 
fcattles  of  Junin  and  Ayacucho  were  fought,  should  be  annu- 
ally kept  as  national  festivals  ;  that  in  the  capitals  of  each  of 
Che  departments,  an  equestrian  statue  of  the  liberator  should 
6e  placed  on  a  column  ;  and  his  portrait  in  all  the  tribunals, 
cabildoes,  universities  and  schools,  on  the  left  of  which,  in  the 
same  situations  ta  be  placed,  the  portrait  of  Sucre,  whom  the 


Or   THE   REPUBLIC  OF  BOLIVAR. 

Congress  calls  grand  marshal  of  Ayacucho ;  a  pedestrian  statue 
of  the  grand  marshal  is  also  decreed  to  be  placed  in  the  capi- 
tals of  each  department,  and  he  is  to  be  further  honoured  by 
the  capital  of  the  republic  and  its  department,  being  called 
Sucre.  The  grand  marshal  is  declared  captain-general  of  the 
republic,  and  invested  with  the  command  of  all  the  depart- 
ments. Every  soldier  in  the  battles  of  Junin  and  Ayacucho 
was  declared  a  citizen  of  the  republic,  and  one  million  of  dol- 
lars directed  to  be  distributed  among  them  by  Bolivar.* 

No  constitution  has  been  adopted,  or  permanent  government 
established,  and  the  republic  must  at  present  be  considered 
as  under  the  authority  of  general  Sucre  as  dictator,  who,  how- 
ever, acknowledges  the  superiority  of  Bolivar,  so  that  the  lib- 
erator may  be  considered  as  exercising  supreme  power  in  both 
Upper  and  Lower  Peru.  Measures,  it  is  supposed,  will  soon 
be  taken  to  establish  free  republican  institutions  in  both  of 
these  interesting  republics,  which,  it  is  hoped,  will  secure  to 
them  all  the  blessings  of  freedom  to  which  they  have  so  just* 
a?  claim  for  their  sacrifices  and  heroism. 

*  Decree  of  the  14th  of  August,  1825. 


HISTORY 

AND  PRESENT  STATE 


OF    THE 


UNITED  PROVINCES. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

Extent  and  boundaries — description  of  the  country — the  pampas f 
rivers,  bays  and  harbours — productions  and  commerce — civil 
divisions — population  and  principal  towns — government,  ar- 
my, navy,  andfinances — character  of  the  people — amusements 
— the  herdsmen  of  the  plains. 

THE  republic  of  the  United  Provinces  of  South  America 9 
or  Rio  de  la  Plata,  extends  from  the  northern  boundary  of  Par- 
aguay in  about  lat.  23°  south,  ttfSt.  George's  bay,  in  lat.  45° 
south,  comprehending  22°  of  latitude,  or  1529  miles  from 
north  to  south.  On  its  northern  boundary  from  the  Brazilian 
territory  to  the  Andes,  it  is  nearly  900  miles  ;  but  on  its 
southern  boundary  it  is  not  more  than  300  across  the  continent, 
from  St.  George's  bay  to  the  gulf  of  Guaytecas,  and  less  than 
200  miles  to  the  Andes.  These  limits  do  not  include  Upper 
Peru  which  was  attached  to  the  vice  royalty  of  Buenos  Ayres, 
in  1778.  The  present  boundaries  of  the  republic  are  north 
on  Upper  Peru  and  Brazil,  west  on  the  Andes  or  Chile,  and  ac- 
cording to  Pazos,  partly  on  the  Gulf  of  Guaytecas  ;  south  on 
Patagonia,  east  on  Brazil  and  the  Atlantic  ocean. 

The  territory  included  within  the  above  mentioned  limits,  is 
mostly  comprised  within  the  great  valley  of  the  La  Plata  and 


HISTORY  AND  PRESENT  STATE,  &C.     181 

its  branches,  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  vallies  on  the 
earth  ;  both  with  respect  to  its  magnitude,  and  its  peculiar 
soil  and  surface.  The  region  which  is  watered  by  the  vast 
river  La  Plata  and  its  branches,  rises  towards  the  west  into 
lofty  mountains,  whose  bases  extend  into  immense  plains  which 
terminate  on  the  La  Plata  and  the  Atlantic  ocean.  The  east- 
ern  boundaries  of  this  valley,  are  mountainous  ridges,  not  far 
from  the  coast  of  Brazil,  whence  the  eastern  branches  of  the 
La  Plata  have  their  sources.  Perhaps  there  is  no  country  in 
the  world,  that  presents  so  level  a  surface,  as  the  republic  of 
the  United  Provinces  of  South  America,  with  the  exception  of 
the  elevated  tracts  at  the  head  branches  of  the  rivers,  near  the 
extreme  boundaries  of  the  great  valley.  The  country  west 
and  south  of  the  La  Plata  is  one  wide  extended  plain,  embra- 
cing all  the  varieties  from  the  richest  alluvial  to  the  high,  brok- 
en, sterile  plain  ;  most  of  this  vast  level  tract  is  destitute  of 
timber  except  near  the  borders  of  the  rivers.  The  lower  sec- 
tion of  this  interminable  plain^  extending  from  the  northern 
part  of  the  province  of  Cordova  south,  on  the  borders  of  the 
river  La  Plata  and  the  Atlantic,  far  into  Patagonia,  and  from 
the  river  and  the  coast  into  the  interior  to  the  highlands,  at  the 
foot  of  the  Andes,  is  usually  ca'lled  the  Pampas,  and  extends 
nearly  1500  miles  from  north  to  south,  with  a  breadth  of  near- 
ly five  hundred  miles  in  many  places.  Over  all  this  immense 
space,  there  is  scarcely  a  tree  or  shrub,  or  a  single  perennial 
plant  to  be  seen.  There  are  neither  hills  nor  eminences  and 
the  undulations  are  so  gentle,  as  only  to  l/e  perceived  by  ta- 
king a  long  view  over  its  surface.  The  keen  winds  called 
Pamperos  sweep  over  this  unsheltered  plain  without  the  least 
obstruction.  The  surface  of  the  earth,  appears  to  be  a  soft, 
black,  rich  soil,  without  stone,  gravel,  or  sand.  On  the  banks 
of  some  of  the  rivers  and  in  some  other  places,  reddish  clay 
apppears  on  the  surface. 

Many  of  the  rivers  intersecting  the  Pampas,  are  brackish, 
and  salt  lakes  abound.  Near  the  La  Plata  and  other  consid- 
erable streams,  there  are  a  few  trees  and  some  shrubbery,  but 
most  of  the  lesser  ones  creep  through  the  plains,  resembling 
crooked  ditches  of  stagnant  water,  more  than  living  streams  ; 
their  courses  not  being  marked  by  vallies,  trees  or  shrubbery. 
The  whole  of  the  pampas,  is  rich  pasture,  and  exceedingly 
productive  in  grass  ;  a  species  of  thistle  also  abounds,  which 
grows  from  two  to  seven  feet  high.  The  only  tree  that  seems 
to  flourish  is  the  Embudo,  or  perennial  Poke,  the  trunk  of 
which  is  a  mere  watery  pulp,  and  is  useless  for  fuel.  The 
peach  tree  thrives  when  cultivated,  as  does  also  the  olive  and 


182  HISTORY  AND  PRESENT  STATE 

fig  tree  ;  and  the  soil  produces  good  wheat,  barley  and  Indian- 
corn,  but  the  crops  sometimes  fail. 

The  pampas  is  chiefly  useful  for  pasturage  ;  on  its  im* 
mense  surface  are  fed  innumeroble  herds  of  horned  cattle, 
horses,  mules,  and  sheep  ;  deer,  ostriches,  and  wild  dogs,  also 
abound.  Thousands  of  these  animals  may  often  be  seen  at 
one  view. 

The  more  elevated  plains  to  the  north  and  west  of  the  Pam* 
pas,  are  likewise  generally  destitue  of  timber,  except  on  their 
water  courses,  but  have  a  soil  more  dry  and  sandy.  The  riv- 
ers here  are  more  numerous  and  the  country  is  copiously  sup- 
plied with  pure  water.  This  region  is  also  well  adapted  to 
pasturage,  particularly  to  the  rearing  of  horses,  mules  and 
sheep  ;  and  many  districts  are  suitable  for  cultivation,  and 
produce  grain  and  fruit,  of  which  they  yield  great  abundance. 
The  country  east  of  the  La  Plata,  has  generally  a  waving,  or 
an  undulated  surface,  every  where  abundantly  irrigated  with 
never-failing  springs  and  streams  of  the  purest  water.  This 
tract  is  generally  found  clothed  with  stately  forests,  with  the 
exception  of  some  of  the  lower  districts  on  the  La  Plata,  and 
has  a  rich  and  fertile  soil  producing  in  great  abundance,  all 
the  Varied  productions  of  temperate  and  tropical  regions. 

Waters. — The  great  river  La  Plata  embodies  most  of  the  in- 
terior waters  of  the  United  Provinces.  The  principal  head 
water  of  the  river  La  Plata,  is  the  Paraguay,  which  rises  in 
lat.  13°  south,  in  Brazil,  and  after  a  southerly  course  of  1250 
miles,  receiving  numerous  branches  and  passing  through  the 
great  lake  or  morass  of  the  Xaraes,  it  assumes  the  name  of 
La  Plata,  at  its  junction  with  the  river  Parana,  about  750 
miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  La  Plata.  The  waters  of  the  La 
Plata  and  Paraguay  are  navigable  for  vessels  to  Assumption, 
977  miles  from  the  sea  ;  and  the  latter  river  is  said  to  afford  a 
boat  navigation  1 ,500  miles  further  into  the  interior.  The 
two  great  eastern  branches  of  the  La  Plata  and  Paraguay,  are 
the  Parana  and  Maguay  ;  the  first  unites  with  the  Paraguay 
after  a  course  of  900  miles,  500  of  which  are  navigable  ;  the 
Maguay  has  its  source  in  Brazil,  and  after  a  southerly  course 
of  900  miles,  discharges  its  waters  into  the  La  Plata  above 
the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres,  having  in  its  course  received  the 
Negro.  The  principal  western  branches  of  the  La  Plata  and 
Paraguay,  are  the  Pilcomayo,  which  rises  in  Peru,  and  after  a 
course  of  1000  miles  discharges  its  waters  into  the  Paraguay 
below  Assumption  by  two  mouths,  fifty  miles  apart,  affording 
navigation  into  the  heart  of  the  high  Provinces  ;  the  Rip 
Grande,  which  unites  with  the  Paraguay  fifty  miles  above 
fte  mouth  of  the  Parana  after  a  coime  of  600  miles,  nearly 


OF  THE   UNITED  PROVINCES.  183 

the  whole  of  which  admits  of  navigation  ;  and  the  river  Sala° 
do,  which  after  a  southerly  course  of  800  miles  empties  into 
the  La  Plata  at  Santa  Fe.  Besides  these  there  are  two  rivers 
of  the  name  of  Salladillo  and  innumerable  small  streams  which 
empty  into  the  La  Plata  from  the  west.  The  Colorado,  the 
Camaronies,  and  the  waters  emptying  into  St.  Matthias'  bay 
are  the  principal  which  discharge  into  the  Atlantic  below  the 
La  Plata.  The  bays  of  St.  Matthias  and  St.  George,  afford 
the  only  considerable  harbours  except  those  of  the  great  bay 
of  the  La  Plata. 

Productions  and  Commerce. — Enjoying  every  variety  of  cli- 
mate of  the  temperate  and  tropical  reigions,  and  blest  with  ex- 
tensive tracts  of  fertile  soil,  the  republic  of  the  United  prov- 
inces possesses  ample  agricultural  resources  ;  but  its  immense 
herds  of  cattle,  horses  and  sheep,  that  graze  on  its  extensive 
plains,  constitute  its  principal  source  of  wealth  and  of  com- 
merce. These  have  been  estimated  at  1,200,000  cattle,  and 
3,000,000  of  horses,  which  roam  in  vast  herds  over  the  inter- 
minable savannahs  of  the  Pampas.  The  principal  articles  for 
exportation  are  included  in  the  following  list :  hides,  tallow, 
jerked  beef,  wool  of  various  qualities,  not  only  from  the  com- 
mon sheep,  but  of  the  Gunaco  and  Vicuna  :  skins  of  lions, 
tigers,  and  wild  dogs,  horns,  hair,  and  the  matte  or  yerba  of 
Paraguay.  Its  exports  have  amounted  to  6,000,000  dollars, 
one  half  of  which  consisted  of  hides  ;  and  the  imports  to  eight 
millions,  the  balance  has  been  made  up  by  specie  received 
from  the  high  provinces  and  Chile  by  the  trade  with  them. 
The  imports  consist  principally  of  European  and  India  goods  ; 
about  one  half  of  the  whole  amount  are  English  manufactures  ; 
the  articles  received  from  the  United  States  are  cordage,  pitch, 
tar,  fish,  furniture,  rice,  butter,  spermaceti  candles,  ale,  gin, 
plank  and  timber.  The  interior  trade  with  Peru  and  Chile  is 
extensive,  and  consists  principally  of  a  sale  of  foreign  goods, 
matte,  and  mules,  for  the  precious  metals,  and  some  produc- 
tions of  the  high  provinces.  Mules  are  purchased  in  the  ter- 
ritories of  the  pampas  and  plains  at  two  years  of  age,  and  drove 
to  Cordova,  where  they  are  wintered,  and  then  taken  to  Sal- 
ta,  where  they  spend  the  second  winter,  by  which  time  they 
have  attained  their  growth,  when  they  are  driven  in  droves  of 
two  thousands  to  Lima,  for  market.  From  fifty  to  seventy 
thousand  mules  were  driven  from  Salta  to  Lima  annually,  be- 
fore the  revolution,  which  interrupted  this  trade.  All  trans- 
portation is  performed  by  mules  in  the  high  provinces,  but  ox 
teams  are  used  in  the  pampas  country.  Six  pair  of  oxen  are 
attached  to  a  cart,  very  large  and  coarse,  made  without  iron, 
and  covered  with  thatch  or  hides,  as  a  protection  to  the  driver. 


184  HISTORY    AND    PRESENT    STATE 

These  teams  pass  over  the  immense  plains  in  carravans  of  thir- 
ty or  forty  ;  they  stop  at  night  in  the  midst  of  the  waste,  and 
turn  the  oxen  loose  to  graze,  which  is  their  sole  support.—- 
These  carts  carry  about  four  thousand  weight,  arid  perform 
the  route  from  Buenos  Ayres  to  Mendoza,  which  is  900  miles, 
or  to  Tucuman,  which  is  the  same  distance,  in  about  thirty 
days,  the  fare  being  from  100  to  140  dollars  per  load.  The 
mules  carry  400  pounds  on  their  backs,  and  are'  employed  in 
the  high  provinces  in  droves  of  fifty  or  one  hundred  ;  they  are 
relieved  from  their  burden  and  turned  loose  at  night  to  feed, 
which  is  their  only  subsistence,  even  on  the  mountains  where 
there  is  no  grass,  and  they  can  only  browse. 

Civil  divisions,  population  and  principal  towns. — The  terri- 
tory within  the  present  limits  of  the  republic,  during  its  colonial 
state,  was  divided  into  the  intendancies  or  provinces  of  Bue- 
nos Ayres,  Paraguay,  Cordova,  and  JSalta  ;  its  present  provin- 
cial divisions  are  involved  in  some  obscurity,  but  for  some  pur- 
poses of  government  the  republic  may  be  considered  as  com- 
prising fifteen  provinces  :  Buenos  Ayres,  Paraguay,  Corrien- 
tes,  Entre  Rios,  Banda  Oriental,  Cordova,  Mendoza  or  Cuyo, 
Tucuman,  Salta,  San  Luis,  San  Juan,  Rioja,  Calamanca,  San- 
tiago and  Jujuy.* 

Buenos  Ayres,  the  first  in  importance,  is  situated  in  the 
south-eastern  section  of  the  republic,  and  is  estimated  to  com- 
prise an  area  of  50,000  square  miles,  composed  entirely  of  the 
pampas  territory,  adapted  to  pasturage  ;  but  produces  some 
fruit  and  grain  when  cultivated.  The  population  of  this 
province  is  estimated  at  120,000,  and  including  Indians  at 
250,000.  The  city  of  Buenos  Ayres, 'the  capital  of  the  repub- 
lic, its  principal  commercial  town,  and  the  seat  of  government 
for  the  province,  is  situated  in  lat.  34°  37'  south,  on  the  south- 
west bank  of  the  river  La  Plata,  about  200  miles  from  its 
mouth.  The  river  is  here  thirty  miles  across,  and  is  merely 
an  open  road  ;  the  opposite  bank  is  low  and  rarely  visible. 
The  creek  Reachucio  falls  into  the  La  Plata,  on  the  east  bor- 
der of  the  town.  The  city  extends  along  the  bank  nearly 
three  miles  ;  the  streets  intersect  each  other  at  right  angles, 
dividing  the  town  into  solid  squares  of  150  yards  each.  The 
houses  are  generally  two  stories  high,  and  built  with  terrace 

*  Entre  Rios  andCorrienties  are  sometimes  regarded  as  constituting 
one  province  only,  and  Santa  Fe  included  in  Entre  Rios  is  often  call- 
ed a  province ;  Jujuy  is  not  always  considered  as  a  distinct  province, 
but  is  included  in  Salta.  Paraguay  has  never  joined  the  union,  and 
is  an  independent  state,  and  Cornentes,  Entre  Rios,  and  Banda  Ori- 
ental, were  also  for  a  longtime  independent,  and  not  members  of  the 
confederacy. 


OP  THE   UNITED   PROVINCES.  185 

roofs.  It  is  defended  by  a  fort,  and  its  public  buildings  con- 
sist of  a  cathedral,  several  convents,  nunneries,  churches,  and 
a  town  house,  and  the  building  formerly  appropriated  to  the 
royal  monopolies.  The  number  of  dwelling  houses  is  estima* 
ted  at  6000,  mostly  built  of  brick,  and  they  generally  have  gar- 
dens attached  to  them.  Among  the  public  institutions,  are 
an  university,  an  academy,  and  a  library  containing  nearly 
20,000  volumes.  There  are  a  number  of  public  schools,  and 
the  means  of  education  have  been  greatly  extended  since  the 
revolution.  The  city  is  accommodated  with  several  book- 
stores,  and  newspaper  establishments  devoted  to  the  republi- 
can principles  of  the  government,  and  the  independence  of  the 
country.  The  population  of  Buenos  Ayres  is  estimated  at 
from  62  to  70,000  ;  about  one  half  are  whites,  and  the  other, 
people  of  colour,  of  various  mixtures, 

The  climate  is  healthy  and  temperate,  but  subject  to  the 
pamperos,  or  south-west  winds,  during  the  prevalence  of  which, 
the  atmosphere  is  remarkably  dry.  In  the  vicinity  of  Buenos 
Ayres  are  some  very  productive  farms,  and  wheat  and  corn  are 
abundantly  raised  with  little  attention.  Peach  orchards  also 
abound,  and  are  cultivated  to  supply  the  town  with  fuel.  Bue- 
nos Ayres  is  1215  miles  from  Potosi,  and  2865  miles  from  Li- 
ma, in  a  south-easterly  direction.  The  other  principal  towns 
and  villages  in  the  province,  are  Ensenada,  St.  Isidro,  Las 
Conchas,  on  the  river  La  Plata,  and  Luxan,  on  the  plains. 

Paraguay,  the  next  most  important  province,  is  bounded  by 
the  river  Paraguay  on  the  west,  the  Parana  on  the  east  and 
south,  and  by  Brazil  north,  comprising  about  43,000  square 
miles.  Its  population  is  estimated  at  110,000,  and  300,000, 
including  Indians,  which  are  numerous  in  this  region.  This 
province  is  considered  as  the  fairest  portion  of  the  La  Platan 
territory  ;  its  climate  is  delightful ;  the  face  of  the  country  is 
not  mountainous,  nor  any  where  flat ;  it  is  well  supplied  with 
a  great  variety  of  streams  of  pure  water  ;  its  soil  is  every 
where  found  to  be  exceedingly  fertile  and  productive,  and  was 
originally  covered  with  rich  and  variegated  forests  of  stately 
timber.  Grain,  cotton,  sugar,  and  excellent  fruit,  oranges, 
figs,  the  olive  and  the  grape  are  produced  abundantly,  as  well 
as  the  singular  vegetable  called  matte,  or  the  yerba  Paraguay , 
so  extensively  used  in  South  America  as  a  tea,  or  beverage.* 

*  This  is  a  perretmia!  shrub  or  tree,  which  grows  to  the  size  of  an 
appple-tree.  In  the  Spring,  when  the  leaves  are  about  half  grown , 
the  young  succulent  shoots  aie  cut  and  dried,  and  afterwards  cured 
and  put  into  sacks  of  raw  hide  containing  100  pounds  each.  This 
herb  is  used  like  the  teas  of  China,  and  its  consumption  is  as  univer- 
sal among  all  classes,  as  tea  is  in  the  United  States. 

VOL.  II.  34 


186        HISTORY  AND  PRESENT  STATE 

The  capital  of  this  province  is  the  ancient  city  of  Assump- 
tion, founded  in  1538,  situated  in  lat.  25°  16' south,  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  river  Paraguay,  977  miles  from  the  ocean,  at 
the  head  of  vessel  navigation.  The  population  of  this  city 
is  not  ascertained.  Paraguay  maintains  an  independent  gov- 
ernment, under  a  chief,  called  a  dictator. 

The  provinces  of  Corientes,  Entre  Rios,  and  Banda  Orien- 
tal lie  east  of  the  river  La  Plata,  helow  Paraguay  ;  a  narrow 
strip  of  territory  belonging  to  Entre  Rios  lies  on  the  west  side 
of  the  river,  stretching  entirely  across  the  country  to  the  Pat- 
agonian  pampas.  Corientes  and  Entre  Rios  comprise  104,500 
square  miles  ;  the  former  has  a  population  without  including 
Indians  of  40,000  and  the  latter  of  45,000.  This  territroy 
is  very  fertile,  abounding  in  timber,  and  besides  the  richest 
pasture  affords  grain,  tropical  fruits,  wine,  and  matte.  The 
city  of  Santa  Fe  situated  in  latitude  31 Q  40'  south,  on  the 
right  or  west  bank  of  the  La  Plata,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Salado,  300  miles  above  Buenos  Ayres,  is  the  capital  of  En- 
tre Rios.  Its  population  exceeds  6,000.  The  city  of  Cori- 
entes on  the  east  side  of  the  La  Plata,  twenty  miles  below  the 
rnouth  of  the  Parana,  with  a  population  of  about  6,000,  is  the 
capital  of  the  province  of  Corientes.  Monte  Video  is  the 
principal  town  in  the  Banda  Oriental,  situated  in  latitude  34° 
50'  south  on  the  east  bank  of  the  La  Plata.  The  harbour, 
which  as  well  as  the  city  derives  its  name  from  a  high  moun- 
tain in  the  vicinity,  has  sufficient  depth  of  water  for  the  first 
rate  ships.  Its  population,  much  reduced  by  the  war  is  esti- 
mated at  10,000.  The  town  is  strongly  fortified  but  was  ta- 
ken by  the  Portuguese  and  Brazilians  in  1817,  who  have  ever  . 
since  retained  possession  of  it.  The  town  of  Maldonado,  on 
the  La  Plata  near  the  sea  coast,  contains  about  10,000  inhab- 
itants, Colonia,  is  a  port  on  the  La  Plata  nearly  opposite  to 
Buenos  Ayres,  and  Purification  is  a  town  of  about  4,000  in- 
habitants, and  was  the  seat  of  government  whilst  the  province 
was  under  Antigas.  The  territory  of  the  Banda  Oriental  is 
extremely  fertile,  its  climate  salubrious,  and  its  waters  abun- 
dant and  pure.  The  northern  sections  are  clothed  with  forests, 
and  its  southern  part  is  a  vast  prairie,  affording  the  most  lux- 
urient  pasture,  and  supporting  throughout  the  year  immense 
herds  of  cattle,  mules,  and  horses.  This  province  contains 
about  86,000  square  miles,  and  a  population  not  including  In- 
dians, of  about  45,000.  The  extensive  province  of  Cordo- 
va lies  west  of  the  Salado,  and  the  territory  of  Entre  Rios,  ex- 
tending south  to  the  Atlantic  and  Patagonian  region,  and 
west  to  the  provinces  of  San  Luis,  and  San  Juan,  and  is  com- 
posed principally  of  plains  and  pampas  devoted  to  pasturage. 


OF    THE    UNITED    PROVINCES.  187 

It  contains  about  90,000  inhabitants  ;  the  city  of  Cordova,  its 
capital,  contains  10,000  inhabitants,  situated  on  the  river  Pri- 
meo,  and  is  the  seat  of  an  university.  West  of  Cordova  is 
the  extensive  territory  composing  the  province  of  Mendoza,  or 
Cuyo,  which  extends  south  to  the  pampas  of  Patagonia,  and 
west  to  the  Cordillera,  which  separates  the  republic  from  Chi- 
le. This  territory  consists  of  plains,  mountains,  and  vallies 
among  the  eastern  ridges  of  the  Andes.  Its  population  is  es- 
timated at  38,000,  about  20,000  of  which  are  in  its  capital, 
the  city  of  Mendoza,  pleasantly  situated  at  the  foot  of  the 
eastern  Andes.  It  was  here  San  Martin  disciplined  his  army 
for  the  liberation  of  Chile. 

North  of  Cordova  is  the  province  of  Tucuman,  extending 
west  to  the  eastern  Andes,  and  containing  40,000  inhabitants. 
Its  seat  of  government  of  the  same  name  is  situated  on  the 
river  St.  Miguel  de  Tucuman,  just  above  its  junction  with  the 
Rio  Dulce  in  lat.  27°  25'  south.  This  town  is  900  miles  from 
Buenos  Ayres  ;  it  was  honoured  with  the  congress  at  the  time 
independence  was  declared.  North  of  Tucuman  is  the  pro- 
vince of  Salta,  stretching  north  to  the  Rio  Grande,  and  west 
to  the  mountains,  and  embracing  many  beautiful  and  fertile 
vallies  amongst  the  ridges  of  the  Andes.  Its  population  is 
40,000,  and  its  chief  town,  Salta,  contains  9000  inhabitants, 
and  carries  on  considerable  trade  with  Peru,  Bolivar,  and 
Chile.  This  province  was  long  the  seat  of  war,  and  occupied 
alternately  by  the  contending  parties,  suffereing  severely  in 
the  long  struggle  for  independence.  Lying  west  of  Cordova, 
are  the  provinces  of  San  Luis,  or  Punta  San  Luis,  and  San 
Juan,  carved  out  of  the  original  province  of  Cuyo,  or  Mendo- 
za, containing  each  about  27,000  inhabitants  ;  the  former 
extends  south  to  the  boundary  of  the  republic  on  Patagonia, 
and  the  latter  stretches  along  at  the  foot  of  the  eastern  An- 
des ;  the  capital  town  of  each  is  of  the  name  of  the  province. 
North  of  the  two  last  is  the  province  of  Rioja,  lying  in  a  val- 
ley of  the  same  name,  and  containing  25,000  inhabitants  ;  to 
the  east  is  the  valley  of  Catamarca,  which,  with  that  of  Co- 
nando,  form  the  province  of  Catamarca,  which  has  a  popula- 
tion of  30,000.  To  the  east  of  this  is  the  province  of  Santi- 
ago, lying  north  of  Cordova ;  its  capital,  the  city  of  Santiago 
del  Estero,  contains  ten  or  fifteen  thousand  inhabitants,  and 
the  province  60,000.  Stretching  north  of  Salta  is  the  pro- 
vince of  Jujuy  bounded,  north  on  the  Bolivarian  republic, 
with  a  population  of  25,000  ;  this  is  a  mountainous  country, 
and  its  chief  town  of  the  same  name  contains  about  3,000  in- 
habitants. 

The  population  of  the  states,  belonging  to  the  present  con- 


188       HISTORY  AND  PRESENT  STATE 

federacy,  according  to  the  latest  estimates,  amounts  to  nearly 
700,000,  exclusive  of  civilized  Indians,  which  may,  probably, 
swell  the  aggregate  to  1 ,200,000,  in  the  whole  United  Provinces. 
The  various  races  which  compose  the  population,  are  the  same 
as  in  other  parts  of  what  was  Spanish  America.  The  Span- 
iards have  greatly  diminished  since  the  revolution,  whilst  other 
natives  of  Europe  have  increased.  The  Creoles,  or  descend- 
ants of  Europeans,  as  in  all  the  rest  of  America,  comprise 
the  most  efficient,  the  most  patriotic,  and  intelligent  class  of 
the  population.  The  people  of  colour,  comprehending  the  In- 
dians, Africans,  and  the  various  mixed  races,  constitute  the 
labouring  class,  as  in  other  parts  of  Spanish  America,  and 
make,  when  disciplined,  good  soldiers. 

Government,  army,  navy,  and  finances. — A  governing  junta 
was  established  at  Buenos  Ayres,  on  the  25th  of  May,  1810, 
from  whence  the  country  dates  the  commencement  of  the  rev- 
olution, and  its  political  regeneration.  In  March,  181 1 ,  a  con- 
gress, composed  of  deputies  from  the  different  provinces, 
was  convened,  and  a  new  junta  appointed.  After  this,  various 
changes  and  revolutions  took  place  in  the  government,  some 
of  which  occasioned  civil  wars.  A  triumvirate,  or  executive 
of  three  persons  was  established,  and  this  was  followed  by  a 
single  executive,  called  a  director.  But  the  government  con- 
tinued unstable,  and  shaken  by  factions — the  dissentions  of 
parties,  and  the  ambitious  designs  of  individuals,  until  March, 

1816,  when  the  election  of  Juan  Martin  Pueyredon,  supreme 
director,  quieted  the  factions,  and  gave  stability  to  the  govern- 
ment for  a  considerable  period.     This  was  followed  by  a  de- 
claration of  independence  by  the  general  congress  on  the  9th 
of  July,  1816.     Since  that  period,  until  recently,  no  attempt 
has  been  made  to  organize  a  general  government ;  one  is  now 
in  successful  operation,  and  adopted  by  most  of  the  provinces. 
Measures  have  lately  been  taken  to  organize  and  maintain  an 
efficient  army  for  the  purpose  of  defence  ;  by  a  decree  adopted 
in  1825,  organizing  and  apportioning  the  military  force  among 
the  provinces,  it  is  to  consist  of  7,600  men  ;  very  little  at- 
tention has  yet  been  paid  to  the  formation  of  a  navy.     The  ac- 
tual revenue  of  the  provinces,  belonging  to  the  republic,  in 

1817,  was  $3,037, 187;  the  national  debt,  at  the  same  time, 
amounted  to  $1,438,054,  and  the  property,  belonging  to  the 
government,  was  valued  at  $19,055, 597,  exclusive  of  the  pub- 
lic lands.     The  principal  source  of  revenue  is  that  derived 
from  duties  on  imports  and  exports. 

Character  of  the  population,  fyc. — The  same  classes  are  found 
here  as  in  the  other  states  ;  but  there  is  one  portion  of  the 
population,  which  is,  in  some  measure,  peculiar  ;  we  allude  to 


OF    THF    UNITED    PROVINCES.  1  89 

the  herdsmen  of  the  plains  and  pampas.  Neither  the  Spanish 
or  the  French  have  been  as  successful  in  colonizing  as  the 
English,  and  one  principal  reason  has  been,  the  disposition  of 
the  two  former  to  crowd  themselves  together  in  towns.  In 
the  United  States,  the  population  is  spread  over  the  whole 
country,  and  was,  at  an  early  period,  as  far  as  the  settlements 
extended  ;  but  in  South  America,  almost  the  whole  Spanish 
population  are  grouped  together  in  towns.  Even  the  great 
landholders  reside  almost  entirely  in  the  cities,  which  owe 
their  growth  to  mines,  commerce,  and  to  being  seats  of  gov- 
ernment. Among  other  consequences  of  this  state  of  things, 
is  the  wide  dissimilarity  between  the  inhabitants  of  the  cities 
and  those  out  of  them.  Where  landholders  reside  on  their 
estates,  and  men  ofVwealth  and  intelligence  live  in  the  country, 
they  have  a  powerful  influence  in  enlightening  and  impro- 
ving all  classes  of  the  people.  That  a  population  living  in 
solitude,  scattered  over  an  immnse  waste,  without  the  means 
of  education,  and  without  enjoying  any  social  intercourse, 
should  be  sunk  low  in  ignorance,  cannot  be  surprising.  What 
intelligence  is  found,  is  in  the  cities,  and  more  in  the  maritime 
ones  than  those  in  the  interior,  owing  to  their  intercourse  with 
foreigners.  Buenos  Ayres,  from  various  reasons,  ranks  first 
in  intelligence,  as  well  as  wealth  and  population.  The  ad- 
vantages of  the  other  cities  have  not  been  so  great  as  those  of 
the  capital ;  yet  their  inhabitants  are  but  little  behind  those  of 
Buenos  Ayres  in  intelligence  and  general  information.  The 
revolution  has  excited  a  spirit  of  inquiry,  and  to  a  considera- 
ble extent  provided  the  means  of  indulging  it ;  newspapers, 
schools  and  colleges  have  been  established.  The  means  of 
improvement  have  not  been  confined  to  the  higher  classes, 
but  have  produced  important  effects  among  every  description 
of  the  population,  not  excepting  the  Indians.  The  inhabit- 
ants of  Paraguay  are  a  peculiar  race,  differing  from  those  of 
the  other  provinces,  being  a  mixture  of  Spanish  and  Indian 
blood  ;  they  are  an  industrious,  peaceful,  taciturn,  supersti- 
tious, and  obedient  people  ;  much  attached  to  their  country, 
desiring  never  to  see  any  other,  or  to  have  any  intercourse 
with  foreigners.  Their  character  was  formed  by  the  Jesuits, 
and  has  ever  since  been  maintained. 

But  the  herdsmen,  who  form  a  considerable  proportion  of 
the  population  of  the  country,  are  the  most  peculiar  class. — 
They  are  scattered  over  the  immense  pampas  and  plains,  each 
one  having  the  charge  of  an  estancia,  or  grazing  farm,  of  many 
miles  in  extent ;  their  houses,  or  cabins,  consist  of  mud  walls, 
with  a  thatched  roof,  without  furniture,  and  as  simple  and  rude 
within  as  without ;  they  are  generally  erected  near  an  embudo, 

34* 


190  HISTORY    AND    PRESENT    STATE 

which  is  the  herdsmen's  favourite  shade.  Here,  in  the  midst 
of  an  immense  waste,  and  unbroken  solitude,  he  spends  his 
days,  shut  out  from  the  world  and  from  the  "  cheerful  ways  of 
man,"  scarcely  less  the  child  of  nature  than  his  Indian  ances- 
tors. Horse  riding  is  both  the  herdsmen's  employment  and 
amusement,  and  being  in  the  practise  of  it  from  their  infancy* 
they  are  the  most  dexterous'horsemen  in  the  world.  They  wear 
a  cloak,  called  a  poncho,  the  same  that  is  worn  by  the  Indians ; 
it  is  larger  than  a  Dutch  blanket,  and  has  no  more  the  form  of 
a  garment,  being  only  a  square  piece  of  cloth,  with  a  slit  for 
the  head,  hanging  down  all  around  the  body.  It  serves  not 
only  for  a  cloak,  but  for  a  saddle  covering,  and  a  bag,  during 
the  day,  and  for  a  bed  at  night.  The  herdsman  is  armed 
at  all  times  with  a  large  butcher  knife  secured  about  his  waist, 
and  the  lazo,  which  is  a  thong  or  cord  of  hide,  about  thirty 
yards  in  length,  with  an  iron  ring  at  one  end,  by  means  of 
which  a  noose  is  formed  in  an  instant,  and  the  other  end  is 
fastened  to  the  chinco,  or  girth  of  the  saddle.  The  lazo  is 
used  with  a  dexterity  truly  astonishing  ;  it  is  thrown  with  un- 
erring aim  on  horse-back  at  full  speed,  at  the  swiftest  animal. 
If  it  take  effect,  and  it  seldom  fails,  the  horse,  being  practised 
in  the  business,  either  stands  still,  or  moves  off,  as  directed  by 
the  rider.  The  lazo  is  suspended  to  the  hinder  part  of  the 
saddle,  and  always  ready  for  use,  as  occasion  may  require. 
The  habits  and  character  of  the  herdsmen  fit  them  for  soldiers, 
particularly  for  cavalry  j  and  during  the  long  wars  in  which 
the  country  has  been  engaged,  particularly  the  Banda  Orien- 
tal, they  have  become  as  expert  in  the  use  of  a  gun  on  horse- 
back, as  of  the  lazo  ;  hardy,  brave,  accustomed  to  fatigues  and 
privations,  they  form  the  most  formidable  guerrilla  soldiery 
that  every  existed.  Such  are  the  men  who  formed  the  forces 
of  Artigas,  which  made  such  astonishing  efforts,  and  exhibited 
such  bravery  and  perseverance.  They  are  commonly  called 
Gauchos,  and  are  usually  one  half  or  one  fourth  of  Indian  blood. 
The  means  of  education  in  this,  as  well  as  in  other  parts  of 
South  America,  have  been  greatly  extended  since  the  revolu- 
tion. The  schools  have  been  multiplied — new  institutions  of 
learning  established,  and  all  kinds  of  books  permitted  to  circu- 
late freely.  The  newspaper  establishments  have  increased, 
and  a  spirit  of  inquiry  become  prevalent  among  all  classes  of 
the  people,  by  the  successful  exertions  of  the  brave  and  intel- 
ligent citizens,  by  whose  patriotic  labours  a  new  republic  has 
been  brought  into  life.  Go  on,  illustrious  people  !  do  what 
has  been  accomplished  in  another  part  of  the  same  hemis- 
phere ;  "  establish  justice,  ensure  domestic  tranquillity,  and 
•perpetuate  the  blessings  pf  liberty  to  yourselves  and  your  pog- 


OF  THE  UNITED  PROVINCES.        191 

terity."     Go  on,  and  be  the  pride  of  your  friends,  and  a  terror 
to  your  enemies. 

The  Roman  Catholic  religion  is  the  established  religion  of 
the  United  Provinces  ;  but  the  advocates  of  universal  tolera- 
tion are  increasing,  and  the  rigours  of  the  ancient  laws  are 
considerably  relaxed.  The  executive  has  recently  presented 
to  the  congress  the  project  of  a  law,  providing  for  the  general 
toleration  of  all  religions.* 

*  We  are  indebted  for  many  of  the  details  concerning  the  United 
Provinces,  to  Judge  Eland's  Report. 


HISTORY 
OF  THE  REVOLUTION 


IN  THE 


UNITED  PROVINCES. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

Arrival  of  a  French  brig  at  Buenos  Ayres  with  despatches  —  pro- 
ceedings of  Liniers,  the  viceroy  —  junta  formed  at  Monte  Vi- 
deo —  R.  H.  de  Cisneros  appointed  viceroy  —  proceedings  of  the 
revolutionists  —  junta  established  at  Buenos  Ayres  —  Liniers  de- 
feated and  taken  prisoner—  junta  sends  a  deputy  to  Chile  — 
an  army  marches  against  the  royalists  in  Upper  Peru  —  its  suc- 
cesses —  war  in  the  Banda  Oriental  —  dissentions  among  the  pat- 
riots —  change  in  the  government  —  Monte  Video  besieged  —  ar- 
my in  Peru  defeated  —  royalists  defeated  at  Salta  —  new  polit- 
ical regulations  —  supreme  director  appointed  —  Monte  Video 

'  capitulates  —  quarrel  with  Artigas  —  political  revolution  —  na- 
val events  —  war  with  Artigas  —  /.  M.  Pueyredon  —  Portuguese 
invade  Monte  Video  —  war  in  Peru  —  Portuguese  take  Monte 
Video  —  events  of  the  war  in  Peru. 

THE  forcible  seizure  of  Spain  by  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  and 
his  attempt  to  establish  his  authority  over  the  American  colo- 
nies, gave  the  first  impulse  to  the  revolution  in  Spanish  Ameri- 
ca. In  July,  1808,  a  French  brig,  with  an  envoy  from  Napo- 
leon, arrived  at  Buenos  Ayres  with  despatches  to  Liniers,  the 
viceroy,  informing  him  of  the  cessions  of  Bayonne,  and  the 
events  which  had  taken  place  in  the  peninsula. 

The  viceroy  called  together  the  cabildo,  and  the  members 
of  the  court  of  audience  for  consultation  ;  and  it  was  decided, 
that  the  extraordinary  occurrences  in  Spain  required  that  the 
people  should  be  officially  made  acquainted  with  them.  Ac- 


HISTORY    OF   THE    REVOLUTION,  &C.  193 

ebrdingly,  Liniers  issued  a  proclamation,  and  being  himself 
inclined  to  support  the  pretensions  of  Bonaparte,  and  knowing  - 
that  the  people  were  strongly  opposed  to  the  transfer  of  the 
country  to  France,  he  only  mentioned,  in  an  obscure  manner, 
this  important  event ;  but  reminded  the  people  of  the  indiffer- 
ence they  had  shown  in  the  war  for  the  succession  to  the 
crown  of  Spain,  and  concluded,  by  assuring  them  of  the  high 
opinion  Napoleon  entertained  for  them,  on  account  of  their 
recent  triumphs  over  the  British.  He  exhorted  the  inhabit- 
ants, in  the  name  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  to  remain  quiet, 
and  preserve  the  public  tranquillity.  A  personal  enmity  sub- 
sisting between  Liniers  and  Don  F.  X.  Elio,  the  governor  of 
Monte  Video,  the  latter  accused  the  viceroy  of  disloyalty,  and 
forming  a  junta  in  imitation  of  those  in  Spain,  he,  by  these 
means,  separated  the  country  under  his  command  from  its  al- 
legiance to  the  viceroy.  About  this  time,  Don  J.  Goyeneche, 
one  of  the  agents  sent  to  America  by  the  junta  of  Seville,  ar- 
rived at  Monte  Video  with  despatches  from  the  junta  ;  he  ap- 
proved of  the  conduct  of  Elio,  in  forming  a  junta,  and  declared 
that  "  his  mission  had  no  other  object  but  to  promote  the  es- 
tablishment of  juntas,  to  secure  the  tranquillity  of  the  country." 
Notwithstanding  this  language  and  conduct,  which  probably 
were  occasioned  by  his  knowing  that  Liniers  favoured  the  pre- 
tensions of  Bonaparte,  Goyeneche,  at  Lima,  not  only  opposed 
the  establishment  of  juntas,  but  conquered  the  troops  which 
supported  the  junta  of  La  Paz. 

Whilst  the  body  of  the  people  considered  the  events  in  the 
peninsula  as  important  only,  by  exposing  the  colonies  as  well 
as  Spain,  to  fall  under  the  dominion  of  the  French  emperor, ' 
a  few  individuals,  distinguished  for  their  intelligence  and  pat- 
riotism, regarded  them  as  the  dawn  of  a  new  era.  They  per- 
ceived that  the  connection  between  the  two  countries  was  dc 
facto,  at  an  end,  and  that  the  time  had  at  last  arrived,  to  break 
the  chains  which  had  so  long  enslaved  their  country.  Castel- 
li,  a  lawyer  of  distinguished  reputation,  was  the  leader  of  the 
patriots  in  Buenos  Ayres,  and  their  secret  meetings  were  held 
at  his  country-house,  where  they  eluded  the  vigilance  of  the 
spies  of  the  government.  His  associates  were  Belgrano,  Chi- 
clana,  Pena,  Beruti,  Donado,  Thompson  and  others.  The 
central  junta  of  Spain  injudiciously  displaced  Liniers,  who  was 
respected  for  his  services  in  defending  the  country  against  the 
British  a  few  years  before,  and  sent  Don  B.  H.  Cisneros  from 
Spain  to  succeed  him.  The  revolution  which  broke  out  in  La 
Paz  in  1809,  alarmed  the  new  viceroy,  and  led  him  to  establish 
the  most  severe  political  inquisition.  But  neither  the  activity 
and  vigilance  of  the  government,  nor  the  melancholy  termina- 


194  HISTORY    OF    THB    REVOLUTION 

tionof  the  revolution  in  La  Paz,  deterred  the  patriots  of  Bue- 
nos Ayres  from  their  bold  and  patriotic  designs.   They  succeed^ 
edin  attaching  to  the  popular  cause  three  regiments  of  troops, 
comprising  the  greater  part  of  what  were  in  the  capital.    These 
regiments  were  commanded  by  colonels  Saavedra,  Ocampo 
and  Rodriguez.     The  revolutionists  also  gained  over  to  their 
interests  the  most  intelligent  Creoles,  and  in  some  measure 
prepared  the  public  mind  for  the  great  political  change  which 
they  meditated.     Things  were  in  this  state,  when,  in  May, 
1810,  the  news  was  received  of  the  dispersion  of  the  central 
junta  of  Spain,  and  the  advance  of  the  French  armies  through 
the  pass  of  Sierra  Morena,  which  removed  every  doubt  of  the 
speedy  subjugation  of  the  peninsula.     Cisneros,   the  viceroy, 
issued  a  proclamation,  informing  the  people  of  the  disastrous 
and  alarming  events  which  had  occurred  in  Spain,  and  at  the 
same  time  intimated  a  doubt  or  the  uncertainty  he  felt  as  to 
his  own  authority.     This  enabled  the  revolutionists  to  prevail 
on  the  cabildo,  or  municipality,  consisting  of  five  Creoles  and 
one  Spaniard,  to  present  a  petition  to  the  viceroy,  praying  him 
to  assemble  a  meeting  of  the  citizens,  to  decide  on  the  course 
proper  to  be  pursued  at  such  a  conjuncture.     The  meeting, 
which  the  viceroy  could  not  prevent,  was  held  on  the  22d  of 
May  ;  the  debate  was  long  and  animated  ;  the  bold  and  popu- 
lar eloquence  of  Caste!  li  confounded  the  royalists,  and  convin- 
ced them  that  the  patriots  had  not  only  the  advantage  of  a  just 
cause,  but  of  superior  talents.     During  the  debate,  a  body  of 
armed  citizens  assembled  in  the  public  square,   to  protect  the 
friends  of  the  people,  should  any  violence  or  danger  menace 
them.     The  meeting  deposed  the  viceroy,  and  declared  that 
the  only  lawful  authority  existed  in  the  cabildo,   who  immedi- 
ately proceded  to  appoint  a  junta,  naming  the  viceroy,  howev- 
er, as  president.     The  people  were  dissatisfied,  on  account  of 
the  viceroy  being  a  member  of  the  junta,  and  a  tumult  ensued, 
which  was  followed  by  a  memorial  addressed  to  the  cabildo, 
praying  for  his  removal.     This  occasioned  the  establishment  of 
a  new  junta,  of  nine  persons,  to  exercise  the  powers  of  govern- 
ment, in  the  name  of  the  captive  king  ;  who  were,  Saavedra, 
Azcuenaga,  Alberti,  Matheu,  Larrea,  Castelli,  Belgrano,  Pa- 
so, and  Moreno.     This  junta  was  created  on  the  25th  of  May, 
when  it  commenced  its  session.     The  measure  of  the  inhab- 
itants, deposing  the  viceroy,  was  not  without  a  precedent,  it 
having  been  done  in  1807,  when  an  attack  was  threatened  by 
general  Beresford,  which  met  the  approbation  of  the  Spanish 
government.* 

*  Pazos'  Letters,  p.  34—9. 


IN    THE    UNITED    PROVINCES.  195 

Its  first  act  was  to  depute  Don  J.  J.  Passo  to  acquaint  the 
inhabitants  of  Monte  Video  with  the  events  which  had  occur- 
red at  Buenos  Ayres.  This  intelligence  occasioned  the  call- 
ing of  an  assembly  of  the  inhabitants  of  that  city,  who  appro- 
ved of  the  proceedings  at  Buenos  Ayres,  and  agreed  to  sup- 
port the  new  government.  The  Spaniards,  however,  at  Mon- 
te Video,  were  violently  opposed  to  the  revolution  at  Buenos 
Ayres,  and  causing  the  troops  to  be  landed  from  on  board  the 
Spanish  vessels  in  the  harbour,  the  royal  party  became 
strengthened,  and  bold  in  their  opposition.  The  Spanish 
chiefs  of  Paraguay,  Cordova,  Chuqaisaca,  and  Potosi,  were 
roused  to  oppose  the  junta,  and  the  late  viceroy,  Cisneros, 
and  the  members  of  the  audience,  secretly  assisted  them,  and 
contrived  to  overthrow  the  new  government,  the  former,  hav- 
ing privately  despatched  circulars  to  all  the  royal  governors  to 
incite  them  to  civil  war.  The  ex-viceroy,  Liniers,  was  also 
among  the  enemies  of  the  junta  ;  and  having  raised  a  force  of 
two  thousand  men,  he  laid  waste  the  environs  of  Cordova,  to 
prevent  the  approach  of  the  popular  troops.  The  part  secret- 
ly acted  by  the  viceroy,  and  members  of  the  audience  being 
discovered,  they  were  seized,  and  ordered  to  quit  the  country, 
and  embarked  for  the  Canary  Islands. — The  Junta  appointed 
colonel  Ocampoto  command  the  army,  who  attacked  Liniers, 
and  took  him  prisoner,  his  troops  having  principally  deserted 
him.  Liniers,  Concha,  the  late  governor  of  Cordova,  Allen- 
de,  Moreno,  and  Rodriguez,  who  had  been  the  most  active 
opposers  of  the  revolution  in  that  quarter,  were  condemned 
and  executed,  to  the  astonishment  of  the  Spanish  chiefs. 

An  English  ship  of  war  having  assisted  the  royalists,  and 
opposed  the  commerce  of  Buenos  Ayres,  the  junta  remonstra- 
ted against  the  conduct  of  captain  Elliott,  its  commander,  to 
lord  Strangford,  the  British  ambassador  at  Rio  Janeiro,  who 
ordered  him  not  to  interfere  in  the  dispute  between  the  royal- 
ists and  the  pepular  government. 

Sensible  of  the  importance  of  extending  the  revolution  to 
Chile,  the  junta  despatched  Don  A.  A.  Jonte,  who  was  well 
known  to  the  inhabitants  in  that  country,  to  Santiago,  to  has- 
ten the  forming  of  a  junta  there,  which  measure  had  the  desi- 
red effect.  The  royal  chief  was  deposed,  a  junta  established, 
and  Jonte  was  continued  there  in  the  capacity  of  charge  de 
affairs  from  the  government  of  Buenos  Ayres  ;  and  obtained 
from  the  junta  of  Chile,  300  troops  for  the  assistance  of  his 
government,  at  a  critical  conjuncture. 

The  army  under  Ocampo  having  been  considerably  re-enfor- 
ced, he  was  ordered  to  march  against  the  Spaniards,  who  had 
collected  in  Upper  Peru,  under  colonel  Cordova,  and  the  royal 


196  HISTORY    OF    THE    REVOLUTION 

chiefs  Sanz,  and  Nieto.  They  were  attacked  by  general  Bal- 
carce,  who  had  brought  re-enforcements  to  the  army  of  the 
junta,  and  assumed  the  command,  and  after  a  hard  fought  ac- 
tion, the  royalists  were  completely  defeated,  although  occupy- 
ing a  strongly  fortified  position  at  Suypacha  ;  and  Cordova, 
Sanz,  governor  of  Potosi,  and  Nieto,  president  of  the  audi- 
ence of  Charcas,  were  taken  prisoners  and  shot.  This  victo- 
ry was  followed  by  another  at  Tupiza.  These  successes  led 
to  the  occupation  of  Upper  Peru,  as  for  as  the  river  Desaquade* 
ro,  which  is  the  boundary  between  the  territories  of  Peru  and 
Buenos  Ayres.  The  army  was  accompanied  by  Castelli,  a 
member  of  the  junta  of  Buenos  Ayres,  as  its  representative, 
and  also  general  governor  of  Upper  Peru.  With  this  victo- 
rious army  it  was  intended  to  invade  that  part  of  Peru  where 
the  viceroy  Abascal  maintained  the  Spanish  authority ;  but 
Castelli,  having  received  proposals  from  the  municipality  of 
Lima  for  the  suspension  of  hostilities,  as  a  preliminary  step  to 
peace,  the  invasion  was  suspended.  The  municipality  sent  at 
the  same  time  the  eleven  propositions  which  had  been  submit- 
ted to  the  Cortes  of  Spain  by  the  members  of  that  body,  rep- 
resenting the  American  colonies,  and  believing  that  they  had 
been  acceded  to  by  the  Cortes,  they  offered  them  as  the  basis 
of  an  accommodation,  or  treaty  of  peace.  These  proposi- 
tions were  sent  by  Castelli  to  the  junta,  who  then  entered  into 
an  armistice  with  Goyeneche,  commanding  the  royal  troops. 
The  danger  on  the  side  of  Peru  was  now  considered  at  an 
end  ;  but  a  storm  was  gathering  in  another  quarter.  Velasco, 
governor  of  Paraguay,  had  raised  an  army  to  attack  the  new 
government  of  Buenos  Ayres,  which  ordered  800  men  under 
Don  M.  Belgrano,  against  Velasco.  Don  N.  Yedros  com- 
manded the  royalist  army  of  Paraguay.  An  engagement  took 
place  on  the  banks  of  the  Tacuari,  and  the  army  of  Buenos 
Ayres  was  defeated,  which  led  Belgrano  to  propose  a  confer- 
ence with  Yedros,  the  result  of  which  was,  that  the  patriot 
army  was  allowed  to  retreat  without  molestation.  Velasco 
was  afterwards  deposed  by  the  people,  and  a  junta  establish- 
ed for  Paraguay,  which  formed  an  alliance  with  Buenos  Ayres  : 
but  refused  to  join  the  confederacy. 

The  regency  of  Spain ^iad  appointed  Elio  captain-general 
of  the  provinces  of  Rio  de  la  Plata,  and  in  that  capacity  he 
governed  the  province  of  Monte  Video,  or  the  Banda  Orien- 
tal ;  and  was  now  the  most  dangerous  and  powerful  enemy 
with  which  the  popular  government  of  Buenos  Ayres  had  to 
contend.  Don  J.  Artigas,  a  native  of  Monte  Video,  and  a 
captain  in  the  royal  service,  having,  in  consequence  of  a  per- 
sonal difficulty,  determined  to  abandon  the  royal  cause,  appli- 


IN    THE    UNITED  PROVINCES.  197 

td  to  the  junta  of  Buenos  Ayres  early  in  181 1,  for  assistance,, 
in  arms  and  ammunition,  to  enable  him  to  excite  a  revolt  in  the 
Banda  Oriental.  The  junta,  anxious  to  destroy  the  royal  au- 
thority in  the  provinces  east  of  the  river  La  Plata,  not  only 
furnished  the  supplies  requested,  but  ordered  the  army  which 
had  withdrawn  from  Paraguay,  to  proceed  to  the  Banda  Orien- 
tal, to  co-operate  with  Artigas,  who  had  collected  a  body  of 
guerrillas.  Rondeau  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
troops  of  Buenos  Ayres.  In  the  contests  with  the  British  in 
1807,  he  was  made  a  prisoner  and  carried  to  England,  and  from 
thence  he  went  to  Spain,  and  served  some  time  in  the  war  in 
the  peninsula.  After  gaining  several  less  important  advanta- 
ges, Rondeau  and  Artigas  obtained  a  signal  victory  over  the 
royalists  at  Las  Piedras,  in  May,  1811;  all  the  royal  troops 
which  survived  being  made  prisoners,  together  with  their  com- 
mander. The  victors  immediately  marched  against  Monte 
Video,  and  having  received  re-enforcements  from  Buenos 
Ayres,  they  laid  siege  to  the  city. 

At  Buenos  Ayres,  as  well  as  in  the  other  parts  of  Spanish 
America,  the  patriots  soon  became  divided  among  themselves, 
and  the  cause  of  the  revolution  suffered  greatly  from  their 
dissentions.  There  were  two  parties  in  the  junta,  one  head- 
ed by  Don  C.  Saavedra,  the  president,  and  the  other  by  doc- 
tor Moreno,  the  secretary,  who  accused  the  president  of  am- 
bitious views,  and  Saavedra  charged  the  doctor  with  being  the 
leader  of  the  mob.  The  president,  with  a  view  to  strengthen 
his  party,  procured  a  decree,  that  the  deputies  nominated  by 
the  provinces  to  the  general  congress,  should  also  be  entitled 
to  seats  in  the  Junta,  whereby  its  members  were  increased 
from  nine,  to  twenty  two.  This  plan  succeeded,  and  deprived 
Moreno  of  his  influence,  which  induced  him  to  resign  his  situ- 
ation. He  was  afterwards  sent  to  England  to  solicit  the  pro- 
tection of  the  British  government,  and  died  on  his  passage.* 
The  dissentions  among  the  civil  rulers  extended  to  the  milita- 
ry, and  occasioned  two  parties  in  the  army,  which  consisted  of 
three  corps,  commanded,  one  by  colonel  Diasvelez,  one  by  Vi- 
amont,  and  one  under  the  immediate  command  of  brigadier 

*  Moreno,  was  a  young  man  of  distinguished  talents,  and  a  true 
patriot.  Saavedra  had  procured  a  decree  of  the  junta,  directing-  the 
same  honors  and  respect  to  be  sh  wn  to  their  president  as  had  been 
to  the  viceroys.  a  His  house  was  called  the  palace  ;  and  had  senti- 
nels posted  at  every  avenue  ;  he  rode  out  in  a  carriage  drawn  by  six 
horses,  and  accompanied  by  an  escort  of  dragoons  Moreno,  oppo- 
sed these  relics  of  royalty,  and  anti-republican  ceremonies,  and  pro- 
cured them  to  be  abolished.  They  were  however  revived  by  the 
director  Posadas. 

VOL.  II.  35 


498  HISTORY  OF  THE  REVOLUTION 

^Balcarce,  commander  in  chief.   The  first  and  last  declared  fdT 
Moreno's  party,  and  Viamont  for  the  president's. 

Notwithstanding  the  armistice,  which  had  not  yet  expired) 
Goyeneche,  taking  advantage  of  these  dissentions,  in  July, 
1811,  attacked  Diasvelez,  at  Guaqui,  who,  not  heing  supported 
fey  the  other  corps,  was  easily  overcome  ;  and  his  defeat  com- 
pelled the  other  two  divisions  to  retreat,  and  enabled  Goyen* 
eche,  who  had  been  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  royal 
army  of  Peru,  by  the  viceroy  of  Lima,  to  take  possession  of 
Upper  Peru.  Pueyredon,  president  of  the  audience  of 
Chuquisaca,  was  chosen  by  the  troops  to  command  them,  in 
-.preference  to  their  former  leader,  and  he  and  Viamont  reti- 
red to  the  province  of  Salta.  Goyeneche,  was  checked  in  his 
career,  by  the  rising  of  the  people  of  the  provinces  of  Cocha- 
bamba,  and  Santa  Cruz  rle  la  Sierra,  and  the  bands  of  the  gu- 
errillas which  overrun  the  provinces  he  occupied,  and  con- 
stantly harassed  his  troops  ;  and  being  greatly  exasperated 
at  this  annoyance,  he  determined  to  shoot  every  prisoner  he 
took,  and  put  to  death  every  partizan  of  the  revolution  who 
fell  into  his  hands.  This  bloody  and  savage  measure  did  not 
.produce  the  expected  effect ;  the  guerrillas  still  kept  the  field, 
and  prevented  Goyeneche  from  advancing  into  the  low  coun- 
try. The  junta  appointed  Saavedra  commander  in  chief,  and 
ordered  him  to  raise  a  new  army.  Having  left  the  capital 
with  officers  and  muskets  for  this  purpose,  his  enemies,  taking 
advantage  of  his  absence,  accused  him  of  ambition  and  ar- 
bitrary conduct,  particularly  in  h.»ving  by  his  influence  obtain- 
ed the  decree  of  the  6th  of  April,  exiling  Larrea,  Pena,  Po- 
sadas and  others,  who  opposed  his  ambitious  designs.  Saave- 
dra was  deposed,  by  the  Cabildo,  and  a  change  in  the  gov- 
ernment determined  on,  the  junta  being  considered  too  nu- 
merous and  slow  in  its  decisions  to  save  the  country  in  so 
alarming  a  crisis.  The  municipality  of  the  city  called  a  meet- 
ing of  the  inhabitants  in  September,  which  resolved  that  a 
-new  government  should  be  established,  consisting  of  only  three 
members,  and  two  secretaries.  M.  Sarratea,  F,  Chiclana, 
and  J.  J.  Passo,  were  entrusted  with  the  powers  of  the  gov- 
ernment ;  and  B.  Rivadavia  and  J.  Perez,  chosen  secretaries. 
(Regulations  were  adopted,  called  a  provisional  statute,  provi- 
ding for  the  renewal  of  the  members  of  the  executive :  a 
;meeting,  composed  of  deputies  of  the  municipalities  of  the 
provinces,  was  to  be  held  every  six  months,  when  one  mem- 
ber of  the  government  vacated  his  seat,  and  another  was  cho- 
sen by  the  deputies  to  supply  his  place.  The  liberty  of  the 
press  was  guaranteed,  and  a  junta  was  to  be  established  annu- 
ally, who,  together  with  the  municipality,  were  to  have 


IN    THE    UNITED    PROVINCES.  T99 

give  jurisdiction  of  all  questions,  relating  to  the  liberty  of  the 
press,  and  augmented  public  revenue,  by  confiscating  proper- 
ty of  the  Spaniards  to  the  amount  of  nearly  $  1 ,400,000. 

In  the  meantime,  Artigasand  Rondeau  prosecuted  the  siege 
against  Monte  Video  with  vigour  and  success  ;  and  the  cap- 
tain-general, Elio,  being  unable  to  hold  out  long  without  as- 
sistance, applied  to  the  Portuguese  government  in  the  Brazils 
for  succour,  and  by  the  influence  of  the  Princess  Charlotte,  sis- 
ter to  Ferdinand  VII.  with  Souza,  the  minister,  Elio  obtained 
four  thousand  men,  besides  money  and  jewels  from  the  Prin- 
cess herself.  The  troops  were  commanded  by  general  Souza, 
brother  of  the  minister ;  but,  notwithstanding  their  arrival  at 
Monte  Video,  Elio  offered  teims  of  peace  to  the  government 
of  Buenos  Ayres,  and  in  November,  1811,  a  treaty  was  con- 
cluded. The  Portuguese  troops  were  to  return  to  their  own 
territory,  and  the  army  of  Buenos  Ayres  to  raise  the  siege 
and  evacuate  the  Banda  Oriental,  as  far  as  the  river  Uruguay. 
The  siege  was  raised,  but  the  Portuguese  troops,  instead  of 
being  withdrawn  according  to  the  treaty,  committed  acts  of 
hostility  in  the  territory  of  Rio  de  la  Plata. 

The  army  of  Peru  was  destined  to  experience  further  disas- 
ters, and  was  defeated  by  the  royalists  under  general  Tristan, 
who  added  the  province  of  Salta  to  those  then  in  the  occupa- 
tion of  the  royal  troops.  The  revolutionary  cause  in  Buenos 
Ayres  was  now  in  a  dangerous  and  critical  situation  ;  the  gov- 
ernment having  no  troops  to  re-enforce  the  army  of  Peru,  to 
enable  it  to  check  the  royalists,  who  were  advancing  victori- 
ously towards  the  capital,  and  at  the  same  time  threatened  by 
the  Portuguese  in  an  opposite  quarter.  Unappalled  by  the 
dangerous  aspect  of  affairs,  the  government  prepared  to  act 
with  all  the  energy  of  which  their  situation  would  admit.  Sar- 
ratea,  one  of  the  members  of  the  government,  marched  at  the 
head  of  four  thousand  men  to  oppose  the  Portuguese  army  ; 
and  general  Belgrano,  who  commanded  in  Peru,  was  ordered 
to  retire  to  Tucuman.  The  unexpected  advance  of  the  army 
against  the  Portuguese,  occasioned  alarm,  and  the  minister 
Souza,  dying  about  the  same  time,  his  successor,  count  de  Las 
Galveas,  proposed  terms  of  peace,  and  an  armistice  was  con- 
cluded in  June,  1812,  without  limitation  of  time.  The  Por- 
tuguese troops  withdrew  from  the  territory  of  Buenos  Ayres, 
and  peace  was  concluded  between  the  two  governments^ 
which  mutually  guaranteed  each  other's  territories. 

But  external  hostilities  were  not  the  only  danger,  nor 
perhaps  the  most  alarming,  with  which  the  government  of  Bue- 
nos Ayres  was  threatened.  A  bold  and  daring  conspiracy  was 
$>rmed  against  it  for  the  purpose  of  arresting  the 


200  HISTORY   OP   THE    REVOLUTION 

All  the  members  of  the  junta  and  all  the  partizans  of  the  rev- 
olution were  to  be  put  to  death.  Don  M.  Alzaga,  a  Spaniard^ 
and  a  rich  merchant  of  Buenos  Ayres,  was  at  the  head  of  the 
conspiracy,  who,  with  twenty  more  of  the  principal  leaders, 
was  tried,  condemned  and  executed.  The  plot  was  discover- 
ed by  means  of  the  Portuguese  ambassador,  who  was  solicited 
to  join  in  the  conspiracy,  but  declined,  and  gave  intimation  to 
the  government  of  their  danger.  General  Belgrano,  retreating 
agreeably  to  his  orders,  was  pursued  to  Tucuman,  by  the  royal 
general  Tristan,  and  would  have  continued  to  retire,  had  not 
the  inhabitants  of  Tucuman  armed  themselves  and  compelled 
him  to  keep  his  ground.  He  was  attacked  by  the  royalists  un- 
der general  Tristan,  on  the  24th  of  September,  who  suffered  a. 
most  signal  defeat,  losing  eleven  hundred  men,  killed,  wound- 
ed and  prisoners.  This  victorious  field  was  honoured  with  the 
appellation  of  Caa-po  del  honor.  The  royalists  were  compelled 
to  retreat,  after  their  defeat,  which  relieved  the  government 
and  people  from  apprehension  on  the  side  of  Peru. 

On  the  5th  of  April,  1812,  an  assembly  was  held  at  the 
capital,  which  elected  Don  J.  M.  Pueyredon,  a  member  of  the 
government ;  and  at  a  meeting  held  on  the  6th  of  October* 
Don  M.  Medrano  was  nominated  a  member.  Both  of  these 
assemblies  claimed  to  possess  the  sovereign  power  of  the 
provinces  of  Rio  de  la  Plata,  and  undertook  to  form  a  consti- 
tution ;  this  was  evidently  exceeding  their  authority,  and  was 
opposed  by  the  governing  junta,  and  both  assemblies  were 
dissolved  by  military  force.  Two  days  after  the  dispersion  of 
the  last  assembly,  a  general  meeting  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Buenos  Ayres  was  held,  which  confided  the  government  to 
Don  N.  Pena,  J.  J.  Passo,  and  A.  A.  Jonte. 

The  captain  general,  Elio,  having  violated  the  treaty  with 
Buenos  Ayres,  by  hostilities  committed  by  the  Portuguese 
troops,  the  governing  junta  determined  again  to  besiege  Monte 
Video  ;  and  the  foundry  which  had  been  established  at  the 
capital  by  Monasterio,  who  was  director  of  the  military  school 
at  Madrid  in  the  reign  of  Charles  the  IV.,  supplied  the  re- 
quisite bombarding  cannon.  Don  G.  Vigodet,  succeeded  Elio 
in  his  command,  and  having  received  re-enforcements  from 
Spain,  he  not  only  felt  confident  of  defending  Monte  Video, 
but  entertained  hopes  of  crushing  the  junta  at  Buenos  Ayres. 
Rondeau  again  commanded  the  troops  sent  against  Monte  Vi- 
deo, and  on  the  31st  of  December,  Vigodet  attacked  him., 
but  was  defeated  with  loss.  Re-enforcernents  were  sent  from, 
Buenos  Ayres  under  Sarratea,  who  assumed  the  chief  com- 
mand, but  a  misunderstanding  soon  arising  between  him  and 
Artigas,  and  the  officers  supporting  the  latter,  Sarratea,  wan 


fN   THE    UNITED    PROVINCES  2Q& 

to  quit  the  army,  and  leave  the  command  again  to  Ron* 
deau.  Not  discouraged  by  his  defeat,  Vigodet,  availing  him- 
self of  his  naval  superiority,  embarked  a  body  of  troops  and 
landed  them  at  Parana  on  the  coast  of  Buenos  Ayres,  in  Feb* 
ruary,  1813,  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  provisions  of  which 
the  besieged  were  in  great  want.  The  governing  junta 
obtaining  information  of  this  expedition,  despatched  col* 
onel  San  Martin,  to  oppose  the  royalists  ;  and  having  come 
up  with  the  enemy  with  his  cavalry  at  San  Lorenzo,  on 
the  river  Parana,  this  gallant  officer  gave  them  battle  with- 
out waiting  for  his  infantry,  and  obtained  for  his  country « 
most  decisive  victory,  and  for  himself,  the  first  fruits  of  the 
distinguished  fame  which  he  afterwards  acquired. 
'  Belgrano  having  received  re-enforcements,  attacked  the 
royalists  at  Salta,  on  the  20th  of  February,  1813,  and  af- 
ter a  hard  fought  battle  of  nearly  four  hours,  victory  de- 
clared for  the  patriots,  and  general  1  ristan  and  all  his  troops 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  victors.  But  the  advantages  of  this 
victory,  were  partially  lost  by  an  act  of  indiscreet  generosity 
on  one  part,  and  base  perfidy  on  the  other.  Belgrano  an<J 
Tristan  had  been  intimate  friends,  and  the  former  confiding  iu 
the  faith  and  honour  of  the  latter,  perm  tted  him  to  withdraw 
with  all  his  troops  on  taking  an  oath  that  neither  himself  nofc 
any  of  his  soldiers,  would  ever  take  arms  again  against  Bue- 
nos Ayres.  But^so  lightly  did  he  regard  his  honour  or  hi$ 
oath,  that  he  immediately  with  all  his  men,  joined  the  royal- 
ists under  Goyeneche,  who  was  preparing  to  take  the  field, 
The  government  disapproved  of  the  generosity  of  BelgranQ, 
but  its  consequences  could  not  be  prevented.  This  victory^ 
however,  compelled  Goyeneche  to  retreat  to  Oruro,  and  re* 
stored  to  the  patriots  the  provinces  of  Potosi,  Charcas,  Chay* 
anta,  and  Cochabamba.  On  the  31st  of  January,  a  congress 
called  the  Constituyente,  composed  of  deputies  from  the  towng 
and  cities  of  the  provinces  of  Rio  de  la  Plata,  met  in  the  cap- 
ital. The  sovereignty  of  the  congress  was  acknowledged  by 
each  inhabitant.  The  style  of  the  governing  junta  was  chang* 
ed  to  that  of  the  supreme  executive,  and  consisted  of  Pena? 
Perez,  and,  Jonte.  The  congress  adopted  some  liberal  meas- 
ures ;  that  every  future  child  of  a  slave,  should  be  free,  an4 
that  all  slaves  from  any  part  of  the  world,  who  might  com£ 
into  Rio  de  la  Plata,  should  immediately  be  emancipated.  A 
plan  was  also  formed  for  the  gradual  manumission  of  th$ 
slaves  ;  all  proprietors  were  to  sell  to  government  when  re- 
quired, one  third  part  of  their  slaves,  the  price  of  which  was 
to  be  liquidated  as  a  debt  against  the  state.  The  government 
was  to  manumit  the  slaves  purchased  ;  but  they  were  to  lie 


202  HISTORY    OF    THE    REVOLUTION 

formed  into  battalions,  their  officers  to  be  whites,  and  to  b£ 
fed,  clothed,  and  paid  by  the  government.* 

A  new  conspiracy  was  formed  at  Monte  Video,  against  the 
popular  government,  instigated  by  Spaniards  at  Buenos  Ayres  j 
but  it  was  discovered,  and  the  conspirators  arrested,  tried,  and 
four  of  them  executed.  In  August,  the  term  of  Jonte  as  a 
member  of  the  executive,  expired,  and  the  congress  filled  the 
fflace  by  Don  G.  Posadas.  Jonte  and  Don  J.  Ugarteche, 
were  appointed  commissioners  to  visit  the  provinces  and  make 
the  necessary  political  reforms  and  arrangements,  conformable 
•to  the  new  order  of  things,  and  particularly  as  it  respected  the 
finances. 

The  armies  of  the  hostile  parties  in  Peru,  the  royalists  un- 
der Pezuela,  the  successor  of  Goyeneche,  and  the  patriots 
commanded  by  Belgrano,  met  at  Vilcapugio  in  the  north  of 
Potosi,  where  a  very  severe  and  long  contested  engagement 
took  place  ;  the  advantage  was  on  the  side  of  the  royalists? 
and  Belgrano  retreated  to  Ayoma  on  the  north  of  Chuquisaca, 
and  being  hotly  pursued,  another  action  was  fought  near  the 
close  of  November,  in  which  the  patriots  were  completely  de- 
feated, after  righting  with  such  determined  bravery  and  perse- 
verance, as  extorted  a  tribute  of  praise  from  the  royalist  gen- 
oral  in  his  official  despatch.  This  victory  made  the  royalists 
Masters  of  all  Upper  Peru,  and  also  Jujuy  and  Salta.  These 
serious  disasters  placed  the  government  at  Buenos  Ayres  in  a 
critical  situation,  and  occasioned  general  alarm.  A  victorious 
arrny,  without  any  troops  to  oppose  it,  threatened  the  country 
on  the  side  of  Peru,  and  the  war  on  the  east  side  of  the  river 
t'equired  additional  forces.  These  threatening  circumstances, 
which  demanded  the  entire  resources  of  the  country,  instead 
of  calling  into  requisition  those  resources,  served  to  impair 
both  the  energy  of  the  government,  and  its  means,  as  the  pub- 
lic mind  began  to  waver  as  to  the  issue  of  the  contest ;  and 
w,hen  their  country  had  most  need  of  their  services,  many 
\££re  thinking  only  of  their  own  safety.  Under  the  influence 
of  this  appalling  aspect  of  affairs,  the  governing  junta  propo- 
sed to  concentrate  the  executive  power  in  one  magistrate,  to 
give  more  energy  and  decision  to  the  government ;  and  on  the 
5lst  of  December,  the  congress  repealed  the  decree  establish- 
ing a  triplicate  executive,  and  vested  the  powers  of  govern- 
ment in  one  chief  magistrate,  called  the  supreme  director. 
Don  G.  Posadas  was  nominated  director,  and  an  executive 
council  of  seven  members  was  also  appointed  for  his  advice 
and  assistance. 

*  Outline  of  the  Revolution  in  South  America. 


tSf   THE   UNITED   PROVINCES.  203* 

At  this  gloomy  period,  an  individual,  whose  name  afterwards 
becanre  illustrious,  was  brought  into  notice.  This  individual 
was  San  Martin,  who  was  appointed  to  succeed  Belgrano,  the 
latter  having  been  ordered  to  be  tried  for  his  late  defeat.  San 
Martin,  in  the  course  of  a  few  months,  created  a  new  army  of 
three  thousand  five  hundred  men  ;  besides  which,  he  formed 
the  guerrillas  into  several  corps,  which  cut  off  the  communi- 
cations between  the  different  divisions  of  the  royalists,  and  by 
constantly  watching  and  harassing  foraging  parties,  deprived 
them  of  provisions.  In  consequence  of  these  annoyances  by 
the  guerrillas,  the  Spanish  general  was  obliged  to  abandon 
Salta,  Jujuy,  and  a  part  of  the  Upper  Peru,  where  the  war  was 
carried  on  by  Pinelo,  Munecas,  the  Indian  Pumakagua,  and 
other  partizan  warriors.  In  the  mean  time,  Don  Juan  Larrea, 
secretary  of  finance,  contrived  and  executed  a  plan  for  estab- 
lishing a  naval  force  superior  to  that  of  the  enemy.  Two 
brigs,  three  corvettes,  and  one  schooner,  were  equipped, 
manned,  and  ready  for  sea,  with  troops  on  board.  Mr.  Brown, 
an  English  merchant  at  Buenos  Ayres,  was  appointed  to  com- 
mand this  little  flotilla,  which,  having  put  to  sea,  engaged  some 
ships  of  the  enemy,  in  April,  1814,  near  the  island  of  Martin- 
garcia ;  and  on  the  25th  of  May,  another  engagement  took 
place  off  Monte  Video,  and  in  sight  of  the  town,  of  a  more 
decisive  character.  Two  of  the  enemy's  corvettes  were  ta- 
ken, two  others  destroyed  by  fire,  and  the  rest  escaped.  This 
victory  enabled  Brown  to  blockade  Monte  Video.  General 
Rondeau,  in  consequence  of  a  difficulty  with  Artigas,  had 
been  obliged  to  withdraw  his  troops  from  the  siege,  but  had 
renewed  it  with  more  vigour  than  ever,  before  colonel  Alvear 
arrived  from  Buenos  Ayres  with  re-enforcements  to  assume 
the  command.*  San  Martin  having  demanded  leave  of  ab- 

*  General  Rondeau,  in  the  name  of  the  government,  convened  an 
Oriental  congress,  for  the  purpose  of  appointing  deputies  to  repre- 
sent the  Banda  Oriental,  and  to  choose  a  governor  for  the  pro- 
vince. Artigas,  as  chief  of  the  Orientals,  demanded  that  the  elec- 
tors should  appear  at  his  head-quartets,  and  receive  instructions 
from  him.  This  arbitrary  demand  being  disregarded,  he  opposed  the 
congress,  declared  it  illegal,  and  attempted  to  dissolve  it.  The  elec- 
tors, however,  appointed  deputies  and  a  governor,  which  so  exaspe- 
rated Artigas,  that  he  exerted  himself  to  spread  disaffection  among 
the  Oriental  troops,  and  finally  withdrew  from  the  army,  and  carried 
off  nearly  all  the  Orientals.  This  conduct  produced  great  indigna-x 
tit  n  against  Artigas,  at  B:jenos  Ayres,  and  the  director,  Posadas,  de- 
clared him  a  traitor  and  an  outlaw,  deprived  him  of  all  his  offices, 
and  offered  $6,000  to  any  one,  who  would  bring  him  in  dead  or  alive. 
This  rash  measure,  fraught  with  great  cruelty  and  injustice,  only 
served  to  strengthen  the  influence  of  Artigas  over  the  Orientals,  and 
render  the  breach  between  them  and  the  government  of  Buenos 
Ayres  almost  irreparable. — Funes. 


204  HISTORY    OP    THE   REVOLUTION? 

sence,  in  consequence  of  the  impaired  state  of  his  health. 
Rondeau  supplied  his  place,  as  commander  of  the  army  of 
Peru.  Soon  after  Alvear  took  command  of  the  besieging 
army,  the  town  not  being  able  to  hold  out  any  longer.  Vigo- 
det  proposed  to  capitulate,  and  the  terms  agreed  on,  were, 
that  the  garrison  should  be  permitted  to  embark  for  Spain,  and 
the  troops  of  Buenos  Ayres  should  enter  Monte  Video,  and 
hold  possession  of  it  until  the  result  of  the  deputation  was 
known,  which  the  congress  intended  to  send  to  Spain.  There 
were  5,500  prisoners  surrendered,  11,000  muskets,  and  an 
immense  park  of  artillery  and  military  stores.  The  govern- 
ment did  not  strictly  comply  with  the  terms  of  the  capitula- 
tion, and  for  neglecting  to  do  which,  they  assigned  various 
reasons  ;  but  the  principal  one  was,  the  right  of  retaliation  for 
Tristan  and  Goyeneche's  breaches  of  faith.  Vigodetwas  per- 
mitted to  embark  for  Spain,  but  the  troops  were  distributed 
through  the  interior  provinces  of  Rio  de  la  Plata,  except  what 
could  be  induced  to  enlist  into  the  popular  service. 

The  difficulties  between  the  government  of  Buenos  Ayres 
and  Artigas,  commenced  almost  immediately  after  their  united 
exertions  had  captured  Monte  Video,  and  reduced  the  Spanish 
power  in  the  Banda  Oriental.  Artigas  claimed  that  Monte 
Video  ought  to  be  given  up  to  him,  as  chief  of  the  Banda  Ori- 
ental ;  this  demand  was  resisted  by  the  government  of  Bue- 
nos Ayres,  and  to  check  the  designs  of  Artigas,  a  part  of  theii? 
troops  were  left  in  the  country  under  the  command  of  colonel 
Soler,  who  was  appointed  governor  of  Monte  Video.  To 
the  contention  with  Artigas,  was  added  mischievous  dissen- 
tions  among  the  patriots  at  Buenos  Ayres.  Availing  himself 
of  the  ephemeral  popularity,  which  the  capture  of  Monte 
Video  had  given  him,  Alvear  obtained  the  appointment  of 
commander  in  chief  of  the  army  in  Peru,  and  marched  with 
a  large  re-enforcement  to  join  the  army  ;  but,  learning  before 
he  arrived,  that,  from  the  influence  of  Rondeau,  the  troops 
were  opposed  to  him,  he  returned  to  Buenos  Ayres.  Here 
he  solicited  the  place  of  supreme  director,  which  he  obtained 
in  January,  1815,  Posados  resigning  the  post.  These  events 
occasioned  deep  animosities  and  general  anarchy.  The  army 
of  Peru  refused  to  acknowledge  Alvear.  Some  of  the  prov- 
inces declared  for  Rondeau,  and  others. supported  the  direct- 
or.— Communication  between  the  capital  and  many  of  the 
provinces  was  obstructed,  although  the  two  factions  did  not 
commit  actual  hostilities.  To  complete  the  difficulties  of  the 
republic,  their  troops  were  defeated  in  the  Banda  Oriental,  by 
Rivera,  one  of  Artigas'  generals,  which  compelled  the  direc- 
tor to  order  Soler,  to  evacuate  the  country  with  the  remnant 


iff   THE    IWITED    PROVINCES.  205f 

of  his  forces.  Artigas  now  entered  Monte  Video,  and  being 
in  the  undisputed  possession  of  the  Banda  Oriental,  he  was  a 
more  formidable  enemy  to  Buenos  Ayres,  than  the  royalists  in 
that  quarter  had  been.  He  determined  to  invade  the  territo- 
ries of  Buenos  Ayres,  and  proceeded  against  Santa  Fe,  which, 
instead  of  opposing  him,  declared  in  his  favour.  The  director 
sent  two  thousand  men  to  oppose  Artigas,  commanded  by  gen- 
eral Viana  and  colonel  Alvarez  ;  but  the  latter  delared  against 
the  director,  arrested  Viana,  the  commander  in  chief,  and  uni- 
ted with  Artigas,  for  the  purpose  of  overthrowing  the  director. 
The  army  in  Peru  sent  Jonte  to  insist  on  Alvear's  renouncing 
the  directorship  ;  and  being  at  last  satisfied  that  he  could  not 
rule  a  people  against  their  will,  and  who  had  lost  all  confidence 
in  him,  in  consequence  of  his  rash  ambition,  he  reluctantly 
yielded  to  the  general  voice,  and  resigned  his  post.  So  indig- 
nant were  the  inhabitants  against  the  director,  that  when  Al- 
varez had  joined  Artigas,  and  was  marching  against  Buenos 
Ayres,  they  collected  in  crowds,  and  denounced  the  director 
instead  of  the  apostate  officer.  These  occurrences  occasion- 
ed a  public  meeting  of  the  inhabitants,  which  declared  the 
.authority  of  Alvear,  and  also  that  of  the  congress,  illegal  and 
disannulled,  and  vested  the  government  in  the  municipality 
of  the  city. — The  ex-director,  Alvear,  retired  three  miles 
from  the  city,  where  the  troops  were  encamped,  of  which  he 
assumed  the  command  ;  and  it  being  reported  that  he  medi- 
tated attacking  the  town,  the  inhabitants  were  thrown  into 
alarm  and  confusion,  and  the  municipality  ordered  every  citi- 
zen under  arms,  and  arrested  the  wife  of  Alvear,  and  several 
deputies,  who  were  his  partizans.  An  accommodation  final- 
ly took  place,  and  Alvear  engaged  to  leave  the  country,  and 
embarked  for  England  in  a  British  frigate,  commanded  by 
captain  Percy,  who  acted  as  mediator  between  the  parties,  and 
engaged  to  guarantee  the  performance  of  Alvear. 

The  municipality  established  a  new  junta,  called  de  observ- 
ation, and  promulgated  a  new  provisional  constitution.  The 
junta  of  observation  were  a  sort  of  tribunes  ;  whose  duty  it 
was  to  see  that  the  laws  were  executed,  to  watch  the  conduct 
of  the  director,  check  his  ambition,  and  oppose  his  acts  when 
prejudicial  to  the  public  interest.  But  Rondeau,  retaining 
his  post  at  the  head  of  the  army,  colonel  Alvarez  was  appoint- 
ed his  substitute.  The  public  papers  were  filled  with  invec- 
tives against  the  members  of  the  late  administration  ;  more 
than  twenty  persons  were  arrested,  and  the  government  was 
occupied  in  preparing  for  their  trial.  Colonel  Paillardel  was 
Condemned  to  death  and  executed,  but  the  people  of 


206  KflSTORY    OP  THE    REVOLUTION 

Ayres  being  much  dissatisfied,  the  rest  of  the  accused  were 
exiled.* 

The  destruction  of  the  Spanish  naval  force,  procured  for 
Brown  the  rank  of  admiral,  and  in  1815,  he  proposed  to  the 
government  to  sail  with  his  flotilla  on  a  cruise  into  the  Pacific 
ocean,  for  the  annoyance  of  the  Spanish  commerce.  The 
government  approving  of  the  proposal,  and  having  made  the 
necessary  preparations,  the  expedition  sailed  at  the  end  of  the 
year.  For  some  time  it  cruised  with  success,  but  the  admi- 
ral's ship  having  grounded  on  the  sands  near  the  coast  of 
Guayaquil,  it  was  captured  by  the  Spaniards.  Brown,  howev- 
er, was  exchanged  for  the  newly  appointed  governor  of  Guay- 
aquil, who  had  been  captured  on  his  way  from  Panama,  a  few 
days  before,  by  one  of  Brownl?  cruisers.  Whilst  on  this  sta- 
tion, Brown  greatly  annoyed  the  Spanish  commerce,  and  cap- 
tured many  vessels,  some  of  which  he  sent  to  Buenos  Ayres. 
On  his  return  in  the  Hercules,  with  a  rich  booty  on  Boards 
Brown  was  captured  by  the  British  ship  of  war,  Brazen,  and 
the  Hercules  carried  into  Antigua,  where  it  was  condemned, 
on  pretence  that  it  had  violated  the  navigation  laws. 

Great  disorders  prevailed  at  Santa  Fe,  and  a  body  of  troops 
were  sent  there  under  general  Viamont  to  overawe  the  par- 
tizans  of  Artigas  and  the  disaffected.  The  death  of  the  gov- 
ernor, and  the  selection  o(  a  lieutenant  governor,  occasioned 
fresh  tumults.  The  inhabitants,  rising  in  a  mass,  led  by  Vera, 
and  aided  by  a  few  troops,  attacked  Viamont  with  that  fury 
which  a  spirit  of  faction  inspires,  and  compelled  him  and  ali 
his  troops  to  surrender.  To  this  disaster,  succeeded  one 
more  serious.  The  royalist  general  Pezuela,  having  received 
re-enforcements  from  Spain,  attacked  the  patriot  army  in  Peru, 
and  defeated  it  at  Sipesipe,  in  November,  1815.  This  victo* 
ry  enabled  the  royalists  the  third  time  to  occupy  the  provin- 
ces of  Oharcas,  Potosi,  and  Jujuy.  Civil  dissentions  still  con* 
tinued  to  agitate  the  state.  Alvarez,  who  exercised  the  su- 
preme executive  authority,  in  consequence  of  the  absence  of 
Rondeau,  ordered  the  convocation  of  a  new  congress  ;  but 
before  it  assembled,  he  was  displaced  from  his  command,  by 
a  popular  revolution,  and  Balcarce  appointed  to  succeed  him  ; 
but  he  was,  also,  soon  removed  by  the  popular  voice,  and  the 
government  placed  in  the  hands  ef  a  committee.  Notwith- 
standing these  commotions,  the  new  congress  assembled  in 
Tucuman,  and  their  first  act  was  the  appointment  of  a  supreme 
director.  Don  J.  M.  Pueyredon  was  elevated  to  the  supreme 

*  Outline  of  the  Revolution.    Dean  Fane's  Hist,  Rev.  in 
Provinces. 


IN   THE   UNITED    PROVINCES.  20*7 

Executive  authority  ;  which  gave  great  satisfaction  to  the  in- 
habitants, tired  and  disgusted  with  repeated  revolutions,  and 
revived  the  hopes  of  the  friends  of  liberty.  Pueyredon  com- 
menced his  administration  with  energy  ;  he  gave  the  command 
of  the  army  of  Peru  to  general  Belgrano,  and  sent  troops  to 
re-enforce  San  Martin,  who  was  defending  the  frontiers  of  the 
country  bordering  on  Chile.  But  he  found  the  republic  in  a 
general  state  of  anarchy  ;  not  only  the  Orientals  under  Arti- 
gas,  opposed  the  government,  but  Santa  Fe  maintained  its  in- 
dependence, and  Cordova  and  other  cities  refused  to  submit 
to  the  government  of  Buenos  Ayres.  The  capital  was  charg- 
ed with  arrogating  every  thing,  and  of  assuming  all  the  powers 
of  government.  Those  opposed  to  the  government  were  in 
favour  of  a  federative  system,  securing  to  all  the  provinces  an 
influence  according  to  their  population.  Previous  to  this  time, 
a  corps  of  troops  from  Buenos  Ayres  had  been  sent  against 
Santa  Fe,  under  E.  D.  Velis,  which  being  aided  by  a  small 
squadron,  the  inhabitants,  seeing  no  chance  of  defending  the 
city,  resolved  to  abandon  it,  and  all  fled,  leaving  every  thing 
they  could  not  remove  to  their  invaders.  So  inveterate  was 
their  animosity  against  Buenos  Ayres.  Having  captured  the 
vessels  of  the  enemy,  they  not  long  after  returned  and  besieged 
their  invaders  in  their  own  capital.  Affairs  being  in  this  situa- 
tion, the  director  sent  deputies,  to  attempt  to  effect  an  accom- 
modation with  Santa  Fe  ;  but  before  they  arrived,  the  troops 
of  Buenos  Ayres  had  evacuated  the  city  and  gone  down  the 
river.  The  threatened  invasion  by  the  Portuguse,  rendered 
the  director  more  anxious  for  a  reconciliation  with  Artigas, 
and  he  sent  to  him  a  deputy  and  a  supply  of  arms  and  muni- 
tions of  war,  offering  to  furnish  all  the  assistance  he  wanted  to 
enable  him  to  repel  the  threatened  invasion.  Artigas  received 
the  supplies,  but  refused  to  listen  to  any  terms  of  accommoda- 
tion. The  congress  issued  a  manifesto,  deploring  the  disor- 
ders, exhorting  the  people  to  obedience,  and  threatening  the 
disturbers  of  the  public  tranquillity  ;  but  it  produced  no  effect. 

The  congress,  on  the  9th  of  July,  1816,  in  a  short,  yet  so- 
lemn declaration,  announced  the  independence  of  the  United 
Provinces.  At  a  subsequent  period,  a  manifesto  was  publish- 
ed, assigning,  at  greater  length,  the  reasons  which  moved  them 
to  a  separation. 

The  invasion  of  the  Portuguese  induced  Pueyredon,  the  di- 
rector, to  make  a  second  attempt  at  reconciliation  with  Arti- 
gas, and  commissioners  were  appointed  to  treat  with  him.  A 
treaty  was  finally  concluded,  wherein  it  was  stipulated  that  the 
province  of  the  Banda  Oriental  should  acknowledge  the  au- 
iherity  of  the  government  of  Buenos  Ayres  j  that  it  shoulct 


*208  HISTORY  OP  THE    REVOLUTION 

send  members  to  the  congress,  and  that  the  government  should 
immediately  furnish  troops  for  its  defence.  This  event  occa- 
sioned great  joy  with  the  inhabitants,  on  both  sides  of  the  river  ; 
which,  however,  was  soon  checked,  by  information  that  the 
Orientals  refused  to  ratify  the  treaty,  influenced,  as  is  suppo- 
sed, by  Artigas.  The  executive  of  the  United  Provinces  re- 
monstrated with  the  Portuguese  general,  Lecor,  and  warned 
him  of  the  consequence  of  an  unprovoked  and  unjustifiable 
.  invasion,  but  without  any  effect.  His  pretext  was  that  the 
disorders  and  anarchy  in  the  neighbouring  provinces  rendered 
it  necessary  to  occupy  the  country,  to  prevent  the  contagion 
from  spreading  into  Brazil. 

In  the  mean  time  the  war  raged  in  Upper  Peru,  where  col- 
onel M.  A.  Padilla  checked  the  progress  of  the  bloody  Facon. 
To  oppose  the  successful  career  of  Padilla,  the  enemy  des- 
patched one  thousand  men  towards  Laguana. — Padilla  pre- 
pared to  meet  the  assailants,  and  entrusted  to  his  captains  the 
defence  of  several  posts,  and  one  to  the  command  of  his  'wife; 
the  enemy  made  a  furious  assault,  but  was  completely  repulsed 
and  routed,  and  this  heroic  female,  deserving  of  Spartan  re- 
nown, had  the  satisfaction  of  presenting  to  her  husband  a  stand- 
ard of  the  enemy,  taken  with  her  own  hands.  Padilla  pursued 
the  fugitives  in  every  direction,  and  what  escaped  were  driv- 
en into  the  town  of  Chuquisaca,  where  they  were  shut  up. 
This  heroine  was  rewarded  by  the  government  for  her  servi- 
ces, by  the  commission  and  pay  of  a  lieutenant  colonel. 

Another  victory  was  obtained  over  a  body  of  Spaniards  of 
one  thousand  men,  under  the  command  of  Facon,  in  person, 
by  the  patriot  officer  Warnes,  the  royalists  being  almost  entire- 
ly destroyed.  In  Salta  and  Jujuy,  general  Guemes,  with  a  for- 
midable guerrilla  force,  and  numerous  other  corps  of  guerrillas 
under  difierent  leaders,  constantly  annoyed  the  royalists,  de- 
prived them  of  their  conquests  as  fast  as  they  were  made,  and 
finally  compelled  Pezuela  to  retreat. 

Internal  dissentions,  and  the  voice  of  faction  had  not  yet 
ceased  to  disturb  the  public  councils.  The  removal  of  the 
congress  from  Tucuman  to  the  capital  was  deemed  expedient 
for  the  better  management  of  the  war  ;  as  it  was  convenient 
to  have  the  different  departments  of  the  government  near 
each  other.  This  measure  was  opposed  by  most  of  the  pro- 
vinces, who  desired  to  have  the  congress  out  of  the  reach  of 
the  influence  of  the  capital.  After  much  discussion,  a  vote 
was  obtained  in  congress  to  remove  the  capital,  which  gave 
rise  to  new  commotions  and  disturbances.  Don  Francisco 
Borges  was  the  leader  of  the  factions  ;  and  a  body  of  veteran 
troops  being  sent  against  them,  they  were  routed  and  dispers- 


IN    THE    UNITED    PROVINCES.  209 

ed,  and  their  leader,  Borges,  taken  prisoner,  who  paid  with  his 
life  the  price  of  his  factious  temerity.  Disturbances  also  oc- 
curred in  the  province  of  Cordova  ;  the  governor,  Antonio 
Funes,  brother  of  the  historian  of  that  name,  although  a  man 
of  great  firmness  and  prudence,  could  not  protect  himself 
against  intrigue  and  conspiracy.  He  was  seized  in  his  house 
by  the  conspirators,  led  by  Bulnes,  his  son-in-law,  and  thrown 
into  prison  with  Sayos,  the  military  commandant.  The  insur- 
gents not  having  sufficient  confidence  in  Bulnes,  appointed 
another  person  to  be  their  leader  ;  but  the  governor,  ob- 
taining his  liberty,  collected  a  small  force  of  militia,  with 
which  the  conspirators  were  dispersed,  and  took  refuge  in  San- 
ta Fe,  and  their  leader  was  taken  prisoner,  who,  with  several 
others  was  sent  to  Buenos  Ayres,  where  they  were  condem- 
ned and  executed.  Tranquillity  was  restored,  and  the  govern- 
or re-established  in  his  authority. 

The  boundary  between  the  Portuguese  possessions  in  Amer- 
ica and  those  of  Spain,  was  long  a  subject  of  dispute,  and  not- 
withstanding the  treaty  of  St.  Ildefonso,  concluded  in  1777, 
the  court  of  Brazil  had  made  frequent  attempts  to  extend  its 
limits  to  the  La  Plata  ;  and  since  the  emigration  of  the  royal 
family  to  Brazil,  it  had  become  an  object  of  more  importance 
to  obtain  the  territory  east  of  the  river,  and  it  was  hoped  that 
the  distractions  of  the  Spanish  provinces  would  afford  a  fa- 
vourable opportunity  to  accomplish  this  desirable  object.     It 
was  this  consideration  which  induced  the  court  of  Brazil  so 
readily  to  send  an  army  to  Monte  Video,  in  1811,  at  the  soli- 
citation of  Elio.     Encouraged  by  the  disorders  in  the  provin- 
ces, particularly  in  the  Banda  Oriental,  which  afforded  a  pre- 
text for  the  measure,  and  urged  on  by  Alvear,  Garcia,  Herre- 
ra,  and  other  disaffected  persons,  who  having  been  banished 
from  Buenos  Ayres  had  retired  to  Monte  Video,  the  Brazilian 
government  resolved  on  invading  the  eastern  shore.     Troops 
were  obtained  from  Lisbon,  and  an  army  of  10,000  men  was 
collected  at  Rio  Grande,  with  which  the  Portuguese  general 
Lecor,   in  December,  1816,  invaded  the  Banda  Oriental  in 
three  directions.     General  Lecor,  with  5,000  men,  marched 
by  the  way  of  Santa  Teresa ;  general  Silviera,  with  a  division 
of  1,600  troops,  advanced  by  the  way  of  Serno  Largo,  and  the 
third  corps  of  3,400,  led  by  general  Curau,  proceeded  towards 
Purification.     It  was  impossible  for  the  Orientals  to  oppose 
this  overwhelming  torrent.     Rivera,  one  of  Artigas'  generals, 
attacted  the  Portuguese  general  Pinto,  at  India  Muerte,  but 
after  a  sharp  conflict  was  repulsed,  with  the  loss  of  half  of  his 
men  ;  mortified  with  this  defeat,  soon  after  one  hundred  Ori- 
entals fell  in  with  the  same  number  of  the  enemy,  who  ha$ 
VOL.  II.  36 


21i  HISTORY   OP   THE   REVOLUTION 

marched  out  of  Maldonado,  and  attacked  them  with  such  fury 
that  they  were  literally  cut  to  pieces.  Rivera  and  Forges,  op- 
posed general  Silviera  ;  they  harassed  him  on  his  march,  but 
had  not  a  force  sufficient  to  engage  him,  or  prevent  his  junction 
with  Lecor,  whose  march  Artigas  had  not  been  able  to  oppose. 
After  this  junction,  general  Lecor  proceeded  to  Monte  Video, 
which  was  evacuated  by  the  garrison  on  the  1 9th  of  January, 
1817,  and  entered  by  the  Portuguese  the  next  day.  Artigas 
still  occupied  the  province  of  Banda  Oriental,  and  by  his  guer- 
rillas continued  to  harass  the  Portuguese,  and  to  cut  off  their 
supplies  of  provisions  from  the  interior.* 

*  Dean  Fune's  Hist,  Revolution  in  the  United  Provinces. 


IN    THE   UNITED    PROVINCES.  .21-1 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

War  between  the  Portuguese  and  Artigas — San  Martin — his  ex- 
pedition into  Chile — difficulties  in  passing  the  Andes — victory 
of  Chacabuco — San  Martin  returns  to  Buenos  Ayres — events 
in  Upper  Peru — affairs  in  the  Banda  Oriental — events  of  the 
war  in  Chile— parties  in  Buenos  Ayres — conspiracy — arrival 
of  Spanish  transport—  revolt  of  Spanish  prisoners — threaten- 
ed expedition  from  Cadiz — constitution  proclaimed — resig- 
nation of  Pueyredon — negotiations  with  France — invasion  by 
the  Monteneros — they  defeat  Rondeau  the  director — Pueyre- 
don's  party  overthrown — anarchy  and  civil  war  ensue — de- 
feat of  Alvear  and  Carrera — Rodriguez  appointed  govern- 
our  of  Buenos  Ayres — Ramirez  defeated — treaty  with  Spain 
— arrival  of  Mr.  Rodney,  minister  from  the  United  States — 
minister  sent  to  Washington — meeting  of  congress — revolution 
in  the  Banda  Oriental — conduct  of  the  emperor  of  Brazil. 

After  the  fall  of  Monte  Video  into  the  hands  of  the  Portu- 
guese, on  the  20th  of  January,  1817,  the  right  wing  of  the  Por- 
tuguese army  under  Curau,  marched  against  the  Orientals, 
and  at  Arrayo  de  los  Catalanos,  they  were  attacked  by  general 
La  Torre,  who  commanded  3000  men,  in  opposition  to  the  ad- 
vice of  his  officers.  The  action  was  obstinate  and  sanguina- 
ry ;  but  terminated  most  disastrously  to  the  patriots,  who  were 
defeated  with  very  great  loss.  Artigas  occupied  a  position  in 
the  rear  of  the  army,  with  one  hundred  men,  and  before  he 
was  aware  of  this  disastrous  result,  he  was  surrounded  with 
four  hundred  men,  and  only  escaped  by  the  aid  of  an  Indian, 
leaving  all  his  baggage  to  the  enemy.  In  the  meantime,  Le- 
cor  found  himself  shut  up  in  Monte  Video,  and  all  supplies 
being  cut  off,  he  was  suffering  for  provisions,  and  exposed  to 
all  the  privations  of  a  siege,  which  compelled  him  to  march 
into  the  interior  with  2,000  men  in  pursuit  of  cattle.  His 
movements  were  watched  by  Rivera,  one  of  the  Oriental 
chiefs,  and  he  was  surprised  and  attacked  by  this  officer  seve- 
ral times,  and  sustained  considerable  loss. 

The  calamities  which  now  afflicted,  and  the  more  serious 


212  HISTORY    OF    THE    REVOLUTION 

ofie  which  threatened  the  Banda  Oriental,  produced  a  univer- 
sal cry  among  the  inhabitants,  for  a  re-union  with  the  confed- 
eracy ;  and  even  some  of  their  chiefs  were  in  favour  of  the 
measure,  believing  it  the  only  means  of  saving  the  country 
from  conquest  and  desolation.  Under  the  influence  of  these 
sentiments,  a  correspondence  was  opened  with  the  director, 
who,  to  evince  his  desire  of  an  accommodation,  immediately 
sent  some  military  supplies  and  arms  by  way  of  Colonia.  Ri- 
vera consented  to  the  union,  subject  to  the  provision,  that  it 
met  the  approbation  of  Artigas.  This  daring  chief,  influen- 
ced only  by  ambition  and  a  determination  to  preserve  his  own 
power,  used  all  his  influence,  and  all  the  artifice  he  possessed 
to  prevent  the  union.  The  party  in  favour  of  a  union,  how- 
ever, was  numerous,  and  several  corps  and  detachments  of 
the  troops  elected  Don  Tames  Garcia  their  commander, 
and  entered  into  articles  of  union  with  the  government  of 
Buenos  Ayres.  Rivera,  after  a  warm  altercation  with  Garcia, 
sent  to  Artigas  for  a  re-enforcement  of  five  hundred  men?  to 
oppose  him  by  force.  Being  decidedly  opposed  by  general 
Forges,  who  expressed  great  horror  at  a  measure  calculated 
to  enkindle  again  the  flames  of  civil  war,  Artigas  sent  only 
fifty  men  to  Colonia,  under  the  pretext  of  defending  that  place 
from  the  Portuguese  flotilla,  but  as  is  supposed,  with  the  real 
design  of  uniting  with  Rivera,  to  make  war  on  the  party  in 
favour  of  the  union.  Finally,  the  party  of  Artigas  prevailed, 
and  this  favourable  opportunity  for  an  accommodation  passed 
by  without  producing  this  desirable  object. 

Whilst  disorders  reigned  in  the  east,  which  cast  a  shade 
over  the  political  horizon,  a  more  brilliant  prospect  was  open- 
ing in  the  west.  San  Martin,  then  governor  of  Cuyo  or  Men- 
doza,  had,  for  some  time,  conceived  the  bold  and  noble  de- 
sign of  crossing  the  Andes,  with  a  force  sufficient  for  the 
emancipation  of  Chile,  which  was  groaning  under  an  exaspe- 
rated tyranny,  the  Spaniards  having  re-established  their  au- 
thority over  the  country,  and  banished  a  large  number  of  the 
most  influential  patriots  to  the  island  of  Juan  Fernandez.  Chile 
had  sent  men  and  money  to  assist  the  United  Provinces,  when 
threatened  by  the  Spanish  general  Elio,  which  required  a  re- 
turn ;  but  the  constant  annoyance  of  the  United  Provinces,  by 
the  royalists  of  Chile  and  Peru,  rendered  it  an  important  ob- 
ject to  the  security  of  the  republic,  that  the  royal  authority, 
in  those  countries,  should  be  overthrown.  The  invasion  of 
Chile,  therefore,  promised,  not  only  the  emancipation  of  that 
country,  but  security  to  the  frontiers  of  the  United  Provinces, 
and  to  advance  the  general  cause.  But  how  was  this  to  be 
Affected  ?  San  Martin  had  no  army,  and  the  confederacy  hac? 


IN   THE    UNITED    PROVINCES.  213 

no  means  of  raising  or  supporting  one  ;  its  affairs  had  never 
been  in  a  more  deplorable  condition,  since  the  commencement 
of  the  war.  The  province  of  Cuyo  was  thinly  peopled,  and 
impoverished  and  devastated  by  the  predatory  incursions  of 
the  Spaniards.  These  discouraging  circumstances,  however, 
did  not  deter  San  Martin  from  his  noble  enterprize,  but  only 
served  to  bring  into  requisition  the  wonderful  resources  of  his 
mind.  Such  was  his  influence  over  the  people  of  Cuyo,  and 
so  completely  had  he  engaged  their  affections  and  confidence, 
that  they  placed  every  thing  they  had  at  his  disposal.  They 
voluntarily  furnished  him  with  six  hundred  slaves,  three  hun- 
dred horses,  ten  thousand  mules,  and  contributed,  by  money 
and  personal  exertions,  to  the  construction  of  barracks,  and 
providing  arms,  munitions  and  equipments.  They  furnished 
the  means,  also,  of  conducting  troops  from  Buenos  Ayres. 

After  one  year  spent  in  organizing  and  disciplining  an  army, 
composed  of  such  materials,  $an  Martin  set  out  on  his  patri- 
otic and  daring  enterprize.  He  had  to  cross  the  majestic  An- 
des, with  an  army  accompanied  with  baggage  and  artillery, 
which,  for  three  hundred  miles,  presented  rugged  and  almost 
inaccessible  summits  and  narrow  defiles,  admitting  of  two  per- 
sons only  abreast  along  the  giddy  verge  of  frightful  precipices, 
where  eternal  frosts  hold  their  undisputed  reign.  This  pas- 
sage with  an  army,  over  the  highest  mountains  in  the  world,  is 
an  achievement  more  daring  and  difficult  than  that  of  the  re- 
nowned Hannibal  in  crossing  the  Alps ;  and  perhaps  there  is 
nothing  on  the  page  of  history  that  surpasses  it.  But  no  ob- 
stacles could  shake  the  purpose  of  San  Martin  ;  no  difficulties 
were  too  great  for  his  genius  to  overcome.  In  thirteen  days, 
the  frozen  Andes  were  vanquished  and  passed,  with  the  loss  of 
five  thousand  horses  and  mules,  and  a  few  men.  The  libera- 
ting army  encountered  the  enemy  at  Chacabuco  soon  after  ; 
and  the  veterans,  who  had  conquered  the  Andes,  experienced 
no  difficulty  in  vanquishing  the  instruments  of  tyranny.  Sel- 
dom has  a  victory  been  more  complete,  or  a  triumph  more  splen- 
did. "  In  twenty-four  days,"  said  the  commander,  "  we  have 
crossed  the  most  elevated  mountains  of  the  globe,  terminated 
the  campaign,  put  an  end  to  the  sway  of  tyrants,  and  given 
liberty  to  Chile."  The  remnant  of  the  royalists  took  refuge 
in  Talcahuano.  The  inhabitants  formed  a  junta  at  Santiago, 
and,  as  a  reward  for  his  services,  ordered  to  San  Martin  the 
dictatorship  of  Chile,  which  he  declined,  and  this  power  was 
vested  in  Bernando  O'Higgins. 

After  this  splendid  victory,  the  general  of  the  Andes,  as  San 
Martin  was  now  called,  returned  to  Buenos  Ayres  to  concert 
%  plan  with  the  government  to  direct  the  victorious  arms  of  the 

36* 


214  HISTORY    OF    THE    REVOLUTION 

republic  against  Peru.  As  he  approached  Mendoza,  the  cap- 
ital of  Cuyo,  the  whole  inhabitants  of  the  town  flocked  out  to 
meet  him  ;  the  youth  strewed  the  road  with  roses,  and  all  de- 
monstrated the  most  lively  sensations  of  admiration  and  joy 
on  beholding  the  hero  of  the  Andes,  and  the  liberator  of  Chi- 
le. At  Buenos  Ayres,  the  same  sentiments  prevailed,  and 
preparations  were  making  to  receive  him  with  every  mark  of 
respect  and  honour  ;  but  being  apprised  of  what  was  intended, 
he  stole  into  the  city,  unobserved,  to  the  no  small  disappoint- 
ment of  the  people.* 

General  Belgrano,  who  had  been  appointed,  by  Pueyredon, 
to  the  command  of  the  army  in  Upper  Peru,  by  his  talents  and 
exertions,  had  retrieved  the  disasters  of  the  republic  in  that 
quarter.  The  Spanish  general  Pezuela,  was  succeeded  in  the 
command  by  general  Serna,  a  less  skilful  general  than  hi5 
predecessor.  After  the  death  of  Padilla  and  Merceces,  the 
bloody  Facon  was  successfully  .opposed  by  Warnes,  Ganderil- 
la,  and  Fernandez,  who  pressed  him  very  hard  ;  but  he  was 
destined  to  fall  a  victim  to  a  higher  power  ;  a  stroke  of  light- 
ning from  heaven  put  an  end  to  his  days,  and  his  cruelties. 
General  Serna,  haughty  and  presumptuous,  resolved  to  recov- 
er the  provinces  which  his  predecessor  had  been  obliged  to 
abandon.  At  the  head  of  2000  men,  he  pushed  forwards  into 
Jujuy  ;  but  was  so  closely  pursued  and  harassed  by  Guemes 
with  his  formidable  guerrilla,  that  he  soon  had  occasion  to  re- 
pent of  his  temerity.  After  several  engagements,  in  which  he 
sustained  considerable  loss,  as  well  as  from  the  continual  an- 
noyance of  several  guerrilla  corps,  Serna  was  compelled  to 
retreat  with  the  remains  of  his  army,  and  abandon  his  designs 
of  conquest. 

The  state  of  affairs  in  the  Banda  Oriental  remained  essen- 
tially the  same  ;  Erenu  and  Sarnanuego,  the  chiefs  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Entre  Rios,  made  some  concessions,  and  manifested 
a  disposition  for  an  accommodation  with  the  United  Provinces  ; 
but  Artigas  sent  an  abusive  letter  to  the  director,  accusing 
him  of  secretly  favouring  the  Portuguese,  of  having  connived 
at  the  supplies  which  had  been  furnished  them,  and  threaten- 
ing to  attack  him  even  in  the  capital.  To  secure  Santa  Fe, 
which  commands  the  interior  of  the  province  of  Buenos  Ayres, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  furnish  relief  to  the  people  of  Entre 
Rios,  the  director  sent  a  body  of  troops  under  Montes  de  Oca, 
which  were  furiously  attacked  and  defeated  by  a  detachment 
ordered  against  them  by  Artigas  ;  and  a  re-enforcement  sent 

*Funes. 


IN    THE    UNITFD    PROVINCES.  215 

under  colonel  Balcarce,  was  attacked  with  still  greater  despe- 
ration, and  shared  the  same  fate. 

These  disasters  were  soon  followed  by  intelligence  still 
more  disagreeable  from  Chile.     Whilst  San  Martin  and  O'Hig- 
gins  were  exerting  all   their   means  to  reduce  the  fortress  of 
Talcahuano,  the  last  strong   hold  of  the  royalists,  the  viceroy 
of  Lima  succeeded  in  throwing  fifteen  hundred  men  into  that 
fortress,  which,  as  to  strength,  will  almost  compare  with  Gi- 
braltar.    San   Martin,  however,  instead  of  being  discouraged 
by  this  untoward  event,  was  re-enforcing  his  army,  and  prepar- 
ing for  a  grand  expedition  to  Peru,  intending  to  strike  the  same 
blow  there,  which  he  had  with  such  important  results  in  Chile. 
Alarmed  at  this  threatened  invasion,  the  viceroy  resolved  to 
decide  the  fate  of  Peru  in  Chile,  and  accordingly,  after  great 
preparation,  embarked  an  army  of  nearly  five  thousand  men, 
under  Osorio,  for  Talcahuano.     Almost  immediately  after  the 
landing  of  his  troops,  Osorio,  confident  of  victory,  and  despi- 
sing the  army,  and  the  general  whose  valour   he  had  not  yet 
tried,  commenced  his  march  for  the  capital  of  Chile.     Being 
re-enforced  by  the  garrison  of  rthe  fortress,  and  the  royalists 
in  the  country,  his  arrny  amounted  to  8,000  men.     He  march- 
ed rapidly  through  the  province  of  Conception,  and  advanced 
as  far  as  Talca.     Previous  to  this,  the   divisions  of  San  Mar- 
tin's army  had  united  and  kept  up  continual  skirmishing  with 
the  royalists,  and  on  the  19th  of  March,  the  van  of  the  Span- 
ish army ,  was  attacked   and  driven  back  into  the  streets   of 
Talca^.  Osorio  now*  became  alarmed  for  his  safety,  and  resolv- 
ed to  attack  the  patriots  in  the  night  in  their  encampment. 
The  attack  was  made  in   the  most   unexpected   and  furious 
manner  ;  and  the   independents  were  surprised,  thrown  into 
confusion,  and  completely  routed.     San  Martin,  with  the  re- 
mains of  his  army,  retired  to  the  pass  of  Angulemu,  on  the 
route   to  Santiago,    and   in  a  few  days   marched  towards  the 
capital,  where,  in  a  short  time,  by  his  own  incredible   exer- 
tions, and  the  patriotism  of  the  inhabitants,  his  army  was  re- 
enforced,  re-organised,  and  prepared  to  dispute  the  dominion 
of  Chile  and  of  Peru,  on  the  plains  of  Maypu.     Here  on  the 
5th  of  April,  1818,  was  fought  one  of  the  most  sanguinary  ac- 
tions which  the  records  of  the  revolution  in  South  America 
afford,  the  result  of  which  was  equally  decisive  and  glorious. 
It   annihilated  the  Spanish  army,  secured  to  San  Martin  an 
imperishable   renown,  and  established  the  independence  and 
liberty  of  Chile  and  Peru.     San  Martin  was  universally  greet- 
ed as  the  saviour  of  the  country,  and  the  hero  of  the  revolu- 
<ion.     Soon  after  this,  he  returned  to  Buenos  Ayres,  where 


216  HISTORY    OP   THE    REVOLUTION 

he  was  received  with  the  honour  due  to  his  private  worth  and 
important  public  services.* 

At  this  period  many  privateers  were  fitted  out  at  Buenos 
Ayres,  or  sailed  under  commissions  of  the  government  of  the 
United  Provinces  ;  some  were  fitted  out  in  the  United  States, 
in  violation  of  our  laws,  and  others  in  England,  which  obtain- 
ed commissions  from  that  government  ;  many  also  sailed  witli 
commissions  from  Artigas.  These  privateers  scoured  the 
ocean,  and  destroyed  what  remained  of  the  Spanish  commerce, 
and  some  of  them  committed  outrages  on  neutral  vessels. 

The  war  on  the  other  side  of  the  river  still  continued  be^ 
tween  the  Orientals  and  the  Portuguese  ;  but  the  government 
at  Buenos  Ayres  took  no  part  against  the  Portuguese,  and 
Pueyredon  was  even  accused  of  secretly  assisting  them.  Gri 
the  first  of  May,  1818,  the  Portuguese  got  possession  of  Co- 
Ionia,  either  by  force  or  treachery,  and  stationed  there  a  gar- 
rison of  one  thousand  men.  About  the  same  time  the  Portu- 
guese general  Curau,  with  a  force  of  3,500  men,  took  Purifi- 
cation and  Pysander,  and  a  body  of  cavalry,  crossed  the  river 
Uruguay,  and  ravaged  the  country.  Purification  was  after- 
wards abandoned  and  the  troops  took  a  station  between  the 
Uruguay  and  Pysander.  Their  vessels  went  up  the  river  to 
co-operate  with  their  troops,  without  any  efforts  being  made 
by  the  government  of  Buenos  Ayres  to  prevent  it. 

A  strong  party  existed  in  the  United  Provinces,  opposed  to 
the  administration,  which  was  charged  with  secretly  favouring 
the  designs  of  the  Portuguese  against  the  Banda  Oriental ; 
but  the  principal  ground  of  dissatisfaction,  was  an  alleged  op- 
position on  the  part  of  the  director  and  his  party  to  the 
rights  of  the  provinces,  which  complained  of  the  control- 
ling influence  of  Buenos  Ayres.  The  opposition  were 
in  favour  of  what  was  called  federalism,  or  a  different 
system  of  government,  which  should  give  to  all  the  provinces 
an  equal  participation  therein.  The  violence  of  the  opposi- 
tion led  to  a  conspiracy  against  the  administration,  which  was 
discovered  in  August,  1818.  The  plan  was  to  sieze  and  car- 
ry off  the  director,  but  the  plot  was  discovered,  and  the  leader 
arrested,  who  accused  three  distinguished  citizens  as  being 
the  authors  of  the  conspiracy,  who  were  arrested,  tried,  and 
acquitted.  This  conspiracy,  and  the  measures  adopted  to 
suppress  it,  increased  the  agitation  of  the  public  mind,  and 
the  director  issued  a  proclamation  to  quiet  the  alarm,  and 
preserve  tranquillity. 

In  the   month  of  February  this  year,  (1818,)  the  commis* 
sioners  of  the  United  States,  Messrs.  Rodney,  Bland,  and 

Hi?tor?  of  thq  revolution  in  the  IJ.  Province  . 


IN  THE    UNITED    PROVINCES.  217 

Graham,  who  sailed  from  our  shores  the  preceding  December, 
arrived  at  Buenos  Ayres,  and  were  the  first  public  functiona- 
ries received  by  the  republic  from  any  foreign  power.  They 
were  sent  by  the  president,  as  special  agents  to  obtain  inform* 
ation  as  to  the  state  of  the  country,  and  the  condition  of  the 
new  government.  They  were  received  by  the  public  au* 
thorities  at  Buenos  Ayres  with  much  respect,  and  obtained 
extensive  information  respecting  the  country  and  the  war, 
which  the  following  year  was  laid  before  congress,  contained 
in  the  reports  of  the  commissioners,  and  the  accompanying 
documents. 

In  the  month  of  August,  a  Spanish  transport,  which  had 
sailed  from  Cadiz  with  two  hundred  troops  for  Lima,  arrived 
at  Buenos  Ayres.  The  troops  mutinied,  killed  such  of  their 
officers  as  would  not  join  them,  and  compelled  the  captain  and 
crew  to  conduct  the  vessel  to  Buenos  Ayres,  where  they  took 
the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  independent  government,  and 
joined  the  forces  of  the  republic.  On  the  12th  of  December, 
the  congress  passed  a  decree,  recognizing  the  independence 
of  Chile.  Most  of  the  troops  of  the  government  being  in 
Chile,  under  San  Martin,  or  on  the  frontiers  of  Upper  Peru, 
the  monteneros,  or  hordes  of  Indians,  disturbed  the  public 
tranquillity,  and  cut  off  all  communication  with  the  interior. 
Early  in  the  year  1819,  the  Spanish  prisoners  at  San  Luis  re- 
volted, and  seven  of  them,  headed  by  a  ;  general  officer,  at- 
tacked the  goverorin  his  own  house  ;  but,  undaunted  by  their 
number,  he  defended  himself,  killed  one,  and  compelled  the 
rest  to  retreat.  Twenty-seven  of  the  conspirators  were  ar- 
rested, condemned  and  shot — including  one  brigadier-gene- 
ral, two  colonels,  and  several  other  officers.  The  expedition, 
which  had  long  been  preparing  at  Cadiz,  occasioned  consider- 
able excitement,  and  attracted  the  principal  attention  of 
the  government,  which  made  all  the  preparations  its  situa- 
tion would  admit  of,  to  meet  any  force  that  might  invade  the 
country. 

The  congress  of  the  confederacy  assembled  on  the  25th  of 
February,  and  the  session  was  opened  by  a  message  from  the 
supreme  director,  who  speaks  of  the  dissentions  which  pre- 
vailed, and  of  the  conspiracies  against  the  government.  He 
says,  that  "  the  frequency  of  disorders,  and  the  repeated  in- 
stances in  which  he  had  been  under  the  painful  necessity  of 
punishing  the  authors  of  disturbances,  and  the  enemies  of  the 
republic,  had  rendered  him  obnoxious  to  the  malice  and  ven- 
geance of  many  individvals  who  might  be  useful  to  the  coun- 
try," and  adds  that  he  would  resign,  did  he  not  think  it  would 
have  an  unfavourable  influence,  at  home  and  abroad,  under 
present  circumstances.  He  urges  the  speedy  adoption  of  a 


218.  HISTORY  OF  THE  REVOLUTION 

constitution  as  the  most  effectual  means  of  pacifying  the  dis- 
affected, and  restoring  the  public  tranquillity.  "  The  threat- 
ened expedition  from  Spain,"  he  remarks,  "  requires  prepara- 
tions for  defence  commensurate  to  the  danger  ;"  and  recom- 
mends that  the  provinces  assume  a  warlike  attitude,  and  be 
put  in  the  most  complete  state  of  defence ;  and  intimates, 
that,  "  this  will  require  ahead,  possessing  more  military  expe- 
rience and  capacity,  than  he  can  claim."  Whilst  engaged  in 
providing  for  the  defence  of  the  country,  congress  were  also 
deliberating  on  a  constitution  for  the  state,  and  one  having 
been  prepared,  was  publicly  proclaimed  on  the  25th  of  May. 
It  was  formed  on  the  federal  basis,  and  its  principles  did  not 
vary  essentially,  from  the  constitution  of  the  United  States. 
It  presented  the  great  features  of  liberty  ;  the  legislative  pow- 
er was  vested  in  two  chambers,  one  consisting  of  deputies 
chosen  by  the  people  for  four  years,  the  other,  of  senators 
elected  by  the  provinces  or  states  ;  the  executive  authority 
was  vested  in  one  person,  called  a  director  ;  it  declared  the 
equality  of  the  citizens,  the  freedom  of  the  press,  the  inviola- 
bility of  persons,  their  dwellings,  &c. 

Shortly  after  this  event,  Pueyredon,  in  consequence  of  ill 
health,  as  he  alleged,  but  perhaps  from  the  disaffection  to  his 
administration,  and  the  apprehension  of  a  gathering  storm, 
resigned  the  directorship,  arid  Joseph  Rondeau  succeeded  him 
ad  interim,  until  a  new  director  could  be  chosen  acording  to 
the  forms  of  the  constitution.  Great  preparations  to  defend 
the  country  against  the  long  threatened  expedition  from  Cadiz, 
continued  to  be  made  until  all  apprehensions,  from  that  quarter, 
were  put  at  rest  by  the  revolution  in  Spain,,  which  defeated  the 
expedition.  No  important  operations  of  the  armies  of  the  Uni- 
ted Provinces,  in  Upper  Peru  and  Chile,  occurred  this  year  ; 
but  the  war,  on  the  east  side  of  the  river,  was  kept  up  by  the 
indefatigable  Artigas,  who,  with  astonishing  perseverance  and 
ability,  maintained  the  unequal  contest  with  the  Portuguese, 
without  any  assistance  from  the  government  of  Buenos  Ayres, 
and  whilst  often  at  open  war  with  it. 

The  revolution  in  South  America,  early  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  the  great  powers  of  Europe,  forming  the  "  holy  alli- 
ance ;"  and  from  the  period  it  became  evident  that  Spain 
could  not  re-establish  her  authority  over  her  American  colo- 
nies, there  is  the  strongest  reason  for  believing  that  the  allied 
powers  seriously  meditated  such  an  interference  as  should  dis- 
pose of  the  destinies  of  those  countries.  The  primary  object 
of  the  allied  powers,  the  proscription  of  all  revolutions  and 
political  reforms  originating  from  the  people,  and  their  deter- 
mination to  oppose  the  establishment  of  free  institutions, 
could  leave  no  doubt  of  the  concern  and  hostility  with  which 


IN  THE   UNITED    PROVINCES.  ,         2l9 

they  viewed  the  development  of  events  in  Spanish  America, 
and  the  probable  establishment  of  several  independent,  free 
states,  resting  on  institutions  emanating  from  the  will  and  the 
valour  of  the  people.  But  there  is  more  specific  evidence  of 
their  hostile  intentions. — Don  Jose  Vaventine  Gomez,  envoy 
from  the  government  of  Buenos  Ayres  at  Paris,  in  a  note  to  the 
secretary  of  his  government  of  the  20th  of  April,  1819,  says, 
that  "  the  dimunition  of  republican  governments  was  a  basis 
of  the  plans  adopted  by  the  holy  alliance  for  the  preservation 
of  their  thrones  ;  and  that,  in  consequence,  the  republics  of 
Holland,  Venice,  and  Genoa,  received  their  death  blow  at 
Vienna,  at  the  very  time  that  the  world  was  amused  by  the 
solemn  declaration,  that  all  the  states  of  Europe  would  be  re- 
stored to  the  same  situation  they  were  in  before  the  French  re- 
volution. I  also  expressed  the  belief,  that  the  sovereigns  as- 
sembled at  Aix  la  Chapelle,  had  agreed,  secretly,  to  draw  the 
Americans  to  join  them  in  this  policy,  when  Spain  should  be 
undeceived,  and  have  renounced  the  project  of  re-conquer- 
ing her  provinces  ;  and  that  the  king  of  Portugal  warmly  pro- 
moted this  plan  through  his  ministers.11 

By  a  circular  note  addressed  by  the  Spanish  minister  to  the  al- 
lied powers  in  1817,  it  appeared  that  these  powers  had  agreed 
with  the  Spanish  sovereign  to  interfere  in  the  dispute  between 
Spain  and  her  American  colonies,  and  that  the  manner  and 
extent  of  their  interposition  was  to  be  determined  on,  at  the 
congress  to  be  held  at  Aix  la  Chapelle.*  The  great  obstacle 
to  the  interference  of  the  allied  powers,  was  Great  Britain, 
whose  commercial  policy,  in  this  instance,  was  opposed  to  the 
political  designs  of  the  alliance,  and  to  her  own  political 
views.  Her  commercial  interests  were  the  strongest,  and  she 
could  not  be  persuaded  to  favour  the  designs  of  the  other  al- 
lied powers  against  the  independence  and  liberty  of  Spanish 
America.  The  condition  of  the  United  States,  and  the  atti- 
tude assumed  by  the  government,  (the  president  having  de- 
clared, subsequently,  that  the  interference  of  any  foreign  pow- 
er against  the  independence  of  the  states  of  South  America, 
would  be  viewed  as  dangerous  to  the  peace  and  safety  of  the 
United  States,)  were  not  without  their  influence  on  the  designs 
of  these  powers. 

But,  if  the  obstacles  which  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  interposed,  prevented  their  attempting  to  dispose  of 
the  countries  of  bouth  America  by  force,  as  they  had  of  Na- 
ples and  Spain,  they  were  in  hopes  to  control  their  destinies 
fey  the  arts  of  diplomacy  and  disguised  friendship.  Taking 

*  See  President  Monroe's  Message,  i 


220  HISTORY    OF    THE    REVOLUTION 

advantage  of  the  threatened  invasion  from  Spain,  and  the 
alarms  which  it  excited  at  Buenos  Ayres,  the  French  cabinet 
attempted,  by  intrigue  and  artifice,  to  establish,  in  the  United 
Provinces,  a  monarchy  under  a  European  prince  related  to 
the  house  of  Bourbon.  Rondeau,  the  director,  was  by  birth 
a  Frenchman,  a  circumstance  which  favoured  this  bold  in- 
trigue. 

The  French  minister  for  foreign  affairs,  in  a  conference 
with  Gomez,  the  envoy  of  the  United  Provinces,  after  express- 
ing the  ardent  wish  of  the  ministry  for  the  success  of  the  glo- 
rious cause  in  which  the  United  Provinces  were  engaged,  and 
regretting  the  obstacles  which  prevented  France  from  afford- 
ing them  assistance,  said,  that  on  reflecting  on  their  true  in- 
terests, he  was  convinced  that  these  entirely  depended  on  the 
choice  of  a  government,  under  whose  influence  they  might  en- 
joy the  advantages  of  peace  ;  and  that  he  firmly  believed  this 
form  of  government  could  only  be  a  constitutional  monarchy, 
with  a  prince  of  Europe  at  its  head  ;  whose  relations  might 
command  and  increase  a  respect  for  the  state,  and  facilitate 
the  acknowledgment  of  their  national  independence.  This 
measure  he  thought  alone  would  ensure  tranquillity  to  the 
provinces,  conciliate  the  powers  of  Europe,  and  even  lead  to 
peace  and  a  recognition  of  the  independence  of  the  country 
on  the  part  of  Spain  itself.  He  recommended  the  Duke  of 
Lucca,  late  heir  of  the  kingdon  of  Etruria  and  a  Bourbon  by 
his  mother's  side,  as  a  suitable  prince  ;  and  said  that  the  Em- 
perors of  Russia  and  Austria  were  very  friendly  to  him,  and 
that  England  could  find  neither  reason  or  pretext  to  oppose 
his  elevation.  It  was  proposed  that  France,  would  furnish 
the  necessary  land  and  naval  forces  to  render  the  new  king 
respectable,  and  secure  the  independence  of  the  country  ; 
that  the  duke  should  marry  a  princess  of  Brazil,  on  condi- 
tion of  a  cession  from  the  government  of  Brazil  of  the  coun- 
try east  of  the  La  Plata  to  the  United  Provinces,  and  that 
France  would  use  her  influence  with  the  king  of  Spain 
to  induce  him  to  acknowledge  the  independence  of  the 
country. 

Gomez  informed  the  secretary,  that  he  had  no  authority  to 
negotiate  on  this  delicate  and  important  subject ;  but  that  he 
would  communicate  what  he  had  expressed  to  him,  to  his  gov- 
ernment, which  he  did  by  a  note  dated  the  19th  of  June, 
1819.  The  same  intrigue  was  undertaken  with  the  govern- 
ment of  Chile  through  its  deputy,  Don  Jose  Yrizarri.  The 
despatches  from  Gomez  were  received  in  October,  1819,  and 
on  the  26th  of  that  Month,  Rondeau,  the  director,  communi- 
cated them  to  congress,  without  expressing  any  opinion,  but 


IN   THE   UNITED  PROVINCES.  221 

urging  a  speedy  decision.*  After  long  deliberation,  at  a  se- 
cret session  on  the  12th  of  November,  strange  as  it  may  seem, 
the  congress  approved  of  the  project  of  France,  subject  to 
nine  conditions  ;  the  principal  of  which  were,  that  his  most 
Christian  majesty,  the  king  of  France,  should  obtain  the  as- 
sent of  the  five  great  powers  of  Europe,  including  England 
and  Spain  ;  that  he  should  facilitate  the  marriage  of  the  duke 
of  Lucca  with  a  princess  of  Brazil,  and  procure  a  cession  of 
the  provinces  east  of  the  La  Plata  ;  that  France  should  afford 
to  the  duke  all  the  assistance  necessary  to  defend  and  consoli- 
date the  monarchy,  and  to  comprise  within  it,  all  the  east  side, 
including  Monte  Video  and  Paraguay,  and  also  furnish  troops, 
ships,  and  four  millions  of  dollars  by  way  of  loan,  to  put  the 
country  in  a  condition  to  defend  itself  against  Spain  and  secure 
its  independence.  The  design  and  result  of  this  scheme,  had 
it  succeeded,  cannot  occasion  a  moment's  doubt.  It  was  in- 
tended to  prostrate  the  republic,  and  to  have  established  a 
monarchy  on  its  ruins,  under  the  protection,  and  consequently, 
entirely  under  the  control  of  France.  If  this  daring  plot 
against  the  independence  and  liberties  of  Spanish  America, 
had  succeeded,  the  example  would  have  been  laid  hold  of,  to 
favour  similar  attempts,  by  other  European  powers,  against  the 
other  governments  in  Spanish  America.  Fortunately  for  the 
interests  of  South  America,  and  the  cause  of  liberty,  there 
was  too  much  virtue  and  intelligence  in  the  people,  in  the 
midst  of  all  their  dissentions,  to  permit  so  degrading  and  per- 
nicious a  scheme  to  be  carried  into  effect.  And  those  who 
had  favoured  it,  were  soon  treated  with  the  indignation  and 
contempt  which  their  conduct  deserved. 

In  the  month  of  November,  the  territory  of  Buenos  Ayers 
was  invaded,  by  the  Monteneros,  headed  by  one  of  Artigas' 
officers,  and  J.  M.  Carrera,  a  distinguished  Chilese,  well 
known  in  the  limited  States,  for  his  inveterate  opposition  to 
the  administration  of  Pueyredon  in  the  United  Provinces,  and 
that  of  O'Higgins  in  Chile.  The  director,  Rondeau,  placed, 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  troops  which  could  be  collected, 
and  proceeded  against  the  Monteneros  ;  and  the  beginning  of 
February,  1820,  he  was  defeated  by  these  formidable  guerril- 
las, commanded  by  Ramirez,  formerly  an  officer  under  Arti- 
gas, and  a  plain  guacho,  but  shrewd,  brave,  and  violent.  Pre- 
vious to  this  disaster,  near  the  close  of  the  last  year,  another 
conspiracy  had  been  discovered  in  the  capital,  against  the  ad- 
ministration, and  many  persons  were  seized  and  banished  from 
the  city.  The  dissentions  and  disorders  that  existed,  were 

*  See  the  despatch  of  Gomez  to  his  government 
VOL.  II.  37 


222  HISTORY   OP    THE    REVOLUTION 

much  increased  by  the  defeat  of  Rondeau,  which  produced 
the  greatest  alarm  at  Buenos  Ayres,  and  occasioned  general 
confusion  and  anarchy.  The  opponents  of  the  administration 
were  now  emboldened  to  act  more  openly  and  decided,  and 
the  authority  of  the  government  was  entirley  prostrated. — 
Buenos  Ayres,  the  cradle  of  the  revolution  in  this  part  of 
Spanish  America,  which  had  displayed  distinguished  patriot- 
ism, and  made  immense  sacrifices  for  the  independence  of  the 
country,  and  the  cause  of  liberty,  was  now  threatened  with 
invasion,  without  any  army  for  its  defence,  without  a  govern- 
ment ;  and  what  was  worse,  had  become  a  theatre  of  faction, 
civil  war  and  intrigue.  Ramirez  was  at  the  head  of  3000  men, 
within  seventy  miles  of  the  city  :  the  congress  and  director 
proposed  to  treat  with  him,  and  appointed  commissioners,  but 
he  refused,  declaring  that  he  would  not  negotiate,  until  a  new 
set  of  rulers  were  appointed,  who  should  be  free  from  the  in- 
fluence of  Pueyredon. 

The  Pueyredon  party,  which  had  long  maintained  the  ascen- 
dancy, although  with  a  powerful  and  violent  opposition,  could 
no  longer  sustain  their  authority.  They  were  accused  of  hav- 
ing brought  on  the  country  all  the  evilsx  which  afflicted  it ; 
of  having  occcsioned  the  dissentions  which  distracted  the 
state,  by  their  mal-administration  and  violent  measures  ;  of 
promoting  the  disgraceful  intrigue  with  France,  of  preventing 
an  accommodation  with  Artigas,  and  of  having  secretly  aided 
the  Portuguese  to  crush  his  power,  and  in  their  encroach- 
ments on  the  Banda  Oriental,  and  of  entirely  neglecting  to 
prosecute  the  war  against  the  royalists  in  Upper  Peru.  What- 
ever truth  there  may  be  in  these  charges,  it  is  evident  that  a 
conjuncture  had  arrived,  which  rendered  the  fall  of  this  party 
inevitable.  To  avoid  the  storm,  Pueyredon  and  his  friends 
fled  to  the  Portuguese  for  safety,  carrying  off,  as  was  said  at 
the  time,  a  large  sum  of  the  public  treasure,  but  the  truth  of 
this  was  never  established,  and  the  charge  was  probably  wholly 
unfounded. 

When  Rondeau  left  the  city,  to  command  the  army,  the 
congress,  on  the  first  of  February,  named  Don  Juan  Pedro 
Aquirre  to  fill  the  office  of  director,  during  the  absence  of  the 
incumbent ;  and  on  the  5th  of  the  month,  Rondeau  returned 
after  his  defeat,  and  resumed  the  directorship ;  but  on  the  8th 
a  revolution  took  place,  which  overthrew  the  administration 
and  dissolved  the  congress.  A  provisional  junta  was  estab- 
lished by  the  cabildo  of  the  city,  which  assumed  the  govern- 
ment. Manuel  de  Sarratea  was  appointed  governor  of  the 
city.*  He  opened  a  negotiation  with  the  enemy,  and  on  the 

*  The  government  constituted  bj  the  cabildo  was  confined  (•  ti* 


Iff   THE   UNITED    PROVINCES.  223 

20th  of  February,  concluded  a  treaty  with  Ramirez,  whea 
Carrera  and  the  adherents  of  what  was  called  the  federal  par- 
ty, entered  the  city.  Tranquillity,  however,  was  not  restored ; 
for  early  in  March  a  counter  revolution  was  effected,  headed 
by  general  Balcarce,  and  Carrera  and  the  leaders  of  the  fed- 
eral party  were  obliged  to  flee  to  the  army.  Balcarce  was 
invested  with  the  powers  of  dictator  until  a  government  could 
be  provided ;  but  on  the  12th  of  March,  the  troops  on  which 
he  relied,  deserted  him,  when  he  immediately  made  his  es- 
cape. The  same  day  Sarratea,  who  had  been  obliged  to  leave 
the  city,  returned  and  resumed  his  authority,  amidst  the  accla- 
mations of  the  people.  The  officers  of  the  two  late  adminis- 
trations were  arrested,  and  many  of  the  adherents  of  Pueyre- 
don.  This  revolution  led  to  a  discovery  of  the  disgraceful 
negotiation  with  France,  for  importing  a  king,  and  placing  the 
country  under  the  protection  of  that  monarchy,  and  all  the 
members  of  the  congress  who  voted  in  favour  of  this  measure, 
with  the  exception  of  three,  who  accompanied  their  signatures 
with  a  protest,  were  arrested. 

The  most  dreadful  factions,  anarchy,  and  civil  war  followed 
these  events,  and  continued  to  distract  the  country,  for  several 
months.  Many  valuable  citizens  fell  victims  to  these  disor- 
ders. The  seyerity  of  the  storm  fell*  on  Buenos  Ayres,  al- 
though it  was  felt  throughout  the  provinces.  Numerous  gov- 
ernours  of  the  city  rapidly  succeeded  each  other,  and  such 
was  the  state  of  alarm,  turbulence  and  faction,  that  there  was 
no  safety  of  persons  or  property.  Ramirez,  Carrera,  and  Lo- 
pez, were  not  pacified,  but  kept  the  field  at  the  head  of  formi- 
dable parties  of  Monieneros,  cutting  off  all  communication 
with  the  interior,  and  threatening  the  capital.  Alvear  and  for- 
ty or  fifty  officers,  who  had  formerly  been  in  the  service  of 
Buenos  Ayres,  had  joined  Carrera  and  the  other  chiefs  of  the 
Monteneros.  On  the  10th  of  July,  Martin  Rodriguez,  who 
had  been  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  troops  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  amounting  to  nearly  3,000  men,  had  an  engagement 
with  Alvear  and  his  confederates,  and  obtained  some  advan- 
tage ;  they,  however,  still  continued  to  threaten  an  attack  on 
the  city,  which  was  kept  ill  a  continual  state  of  alarm,  so  that 
no  business  could  be  transacted.  Alvear  continued  to  menace 
the  city  during  the  early  part  of  the  month  of  August,  threat- 

province  of  Buenos  Ayres,  which,  for  a  considerable  time  after,  stood 
alone ;  each  province  governed  itself,  or  remained  in  a  state  of  an- 
archy. In  the  absence  of  higher  authority,  the  cabildoes  of  the  cap- 
ital cities  of  the  provinces  assumed  the  power  of  government,  or 
'ested  it  in  a  junta. 


224  HISTORY    OP    THE    REVOLUTION 

ening  vengeance  against  his  enemies.     He  some  years  before 
had  been  a  director,  and  was  banished. 

For  the  restoration  of  tranquillity,  or  at  least  for  the  dis- 
comfiture of  its  enemies,  the  country  seems  to  be  indebted 
principally  to  Rodriguez,  and  general  Dorego,  governour  of 
Santa  Fe.  Dorego,  the  latter  part  of  August,  completely 
routed  the  forces  of  Alvear  and  Carrera,  and  made  prisoners 
of  Alvear  and  a  number  of  officers,  formerly  in  the  Buenos 
Ayrean  service,  and  three  or  four  hundred  men.  Carrera  had 
several  hundred  troops  from  Chile,  and  the  rest  of  his  force 
consisted  of  the  Monteneros,  and  the  malcontents  of  the  Uni- 
ted Provinces.  Carrera  escaped  with  some  followers;  his 
fate,  however,  was  not  long  deferred.  This  victory  promoted 
the  public  tranquillity,  and  prepared  the  way  for  a  better  order 
of  things.  A  junta,  which  was  chosen  from  the  city  and  coun- 
try, on  the  26th  of  September,  1820,  appointed  Rodriguez 
governor  of  Buenos  Ayres.  The  turbulence  of  dissention., 
however,  had  not  yet  subsided,  for,  on  the  1st  of  October, 
Rodriguez  was  driven  from  the  capital  by  a  desperate  faction  ; 
but  on  the  5th  he  routed  and  dispersed  them,  resumed  his  au- 
thority, and  partially  restored  tranquillity  to  a  distracted  city, 
so  long  the  prey  of  factions  and  civil  war. 

The  power  of  Artigas,  which  had  experienced  so  many  vi- 
cissitudes, was  completely  prostrated  about  this  period  ;  be- 
ing defeated  by  the  Portuguese,  with  the  loss  of  nearly  all  his 
army,  Ramirez,  the  chief  of  Entre  Rios,  who  had  formerly 
acknowledged  the  supremacy  of  Artigas,  turned  his  arms 
against  him,  and  compelled  him  to  take  refuge  in  Paraguay. 
Rodriguez  maintained  his  authority,  preserved  the  public 
tranquillity  of  the  capital,  repelled  the  predatory  incursions  of 
the  Indians,  and  defeated  the  machinations  and  hostility  of 
the  desperate  malcontents.  Great  disorders,  however,  still 
existed  in  the  provinces,  of  which  Carrera  was  regarded  as 
being  the  principal  author  ;  he  continued  his  predatory  incur- 
sions, and  often  committed  dreadful  outrages  on  the  inhabitants 
in  remote  settlements.  He  seemed  to  have  become  a  despe- 
rate and  infatuated  man,  and  to  be  bent  on  destroying  every- 
thing within  his  power,  which  finally4>rought  destruction  on  his 
own  head.  Ramirez  also  continued  his  hostility  to  the  govern- 
ment of  Buenos  Ayres,  and  even  threatened  the  capital  ;  he 
had  the  command  of  the  forces  of  the  Banda  Oriental,  former- 
ly governed  by  Artigas. 

The  government  exerted  itself  to  oppose  him,  and  fitted  out 
a  flotilla,  for  which  purpose  it  pressed  some  of  the  seamen  of 
the  United  States  to  complete  the  crew  ;  and  an  army,  com- 
posed of  the  troops  of  Buenos  Ayres  and  Santa  F 


IN    THE    UNITED    PROVINCES. 

against  Ramirez,  commanded  by  Rodriguez  himself,  which  in 
June,  1821,  defeated  him  with  great  loss.  His  troops  were 
completely  routed  and  dispersed,  and  he  escaped  himself, 
with  two  hundred  of  his  followers,  and  joined  Carrera. 

The  commencement  of  the  year  1822,  found  the  affairs  of 
the  United  Provinces  in  a  more  prosperous  condition  ;  the  in- 
ternal enemies  of  the  republic  had  been  destroyed,  or  driven 
out  of  the  country  ;  the  voice  of  faction  was  silenced  ;  the 
government  had  acquired  energy  and  respect,  and  was  enga- 
ged in  works  of  improvement,  in  forming  schools,  and  estab- 
lishing libraries,  calculated  to  prepare  the  people  for  the  ap- 
preciation and  enjoyment  of  liberty.  The  papers  discussed 
freely,  and  often  ably,  important  political  questions  connected 
with  their  new  situation.  A  splendid  edifice  was  erected  for 
a  congressional  hall,  on  the  same  spot,  where,  in  1780,  was 
reared  the  dungeons  of  Oruro,  in  which  were  immured  those 
accused  of  promoting  the  independence  of  Peru.  Peace  was 
also  restored  with  the  provinces  of  Entre  Rios,  and  Corientes, 
a  convention  having  been  concluded  between  them  and  the 
province  of  Buenos  Ayres  and  the  city  of  Santa  Fe,  on  the 
14th  of  January,  whereby  the  parties  stipulated  to  be  at  peace, 
and  make  common  cause  against  external  and  internal  ene- 
mies, and  mutually  to  defend  and  assist  each  other.  The 
Portuguese  or  Brazilians  maintained  possession  of  the  city  of 
Monte  Video,  and  the  province  of  Banda  Oriental.  The 
public  mind  became  more  and  more  tranquilized,  and  the 
government  acquired  energy  and  the  confidence  of  the  people. 
The  disaffected,  however,  were  not  entirely  removed  or  con- 
ciliated, as  a  conspiracy  was  discovered  at  the  capital,  on  the 
23d  of  August,  said  to  be  headed  by  Tagle,  secretary  of  state, 
during  Pueyredon's  administration  ;  and  a  number  of  persons 
were  arrested.  It  did  not,  however,  occasion  any  commotion^ 
and  the  public  tranquillity  continued  undisturbed  during  the  re- 
mainder of  the  year. 

On  the  4th  of  July,  1823,  a  convention,  or  a  preliminary 
treaty  of  peace,  was  concluded  between  Buenos  Ayres  and 
Spain,  by  the  commissioners  appointed  by  the  Spanish  gov- 
ernment, under  the  direction  of  the  Cortes  and  Rivadavia., 
secretary  of  state  for  Buenos  Ayres.  It  was  stipulated  that 
hostilities  should  cease  for  eighteen  months,  that  the  relations 
of  commerce  should  be  renewed  between  the  two  countries, 
and  that  within  the  time  the  two  governments  should  negotiate 
a  definite  treaty  of  peace  and  friendship.  The  congress  au- 
thorized the  executive  to  ratify  the  convention,  and  resolved 
that  on  its  being  ratified  by  Spain,  and  a  definitive  treaty  of 
peace  concluded,  twenty  millions  of  dollars  should  be  vo- 

37* 


226  HISTORY    OP  THE    REVOLUTION 

ted  to  Spain,  to  maintain  her  independence  on  the  repre-* 
sentative  system,  provided  she  should  be  invaded  by  France,, 
that  sum  being  the  amount  which  the  chambers  "of  Paris* 
had  granted  the  king  for  the  prosecution  of  hostilities  in  Spain, 
Notwithstanding  this  liberal  conduct  of  the  congress,  the  con- 
vention was  rejected  by  the  Spanish  government. 

On  the  16th  of  November,  1823,  Caesar  A.  Rodney,  minis- 
ter from  the  United  States,  arrived  at  Buenos  Ayres,  and  in  a 
few  days  presented  his  credentials.  He  being  the  first  envoy 
ever  received  from  any  foreign  power,  it  was  deemed  impor- 
tant by  the  government,  that  his  recognition  should  be  public 
in  the  hall  of  the  government  house,  attended  with  a  solemni- 
ty and  splendour  of  ceremonies  corresponding  with  the  impor- 
tance of  the  occasion.  But  the  state  of  Mr.  Rodney's  health 
would  not  admit  of  this,  fit  that  time.  On  the  27th  of  De- 
cember, his  health  having  been  restored,  the  ceremony  of  pre- 
sentation took  place.  He  was  conveyed  to  the  government 
house,  by  the  minister  of  foreign  relations,  in  a  coach  of  state, 
attended  with  military  display  and  every  mark  of  honour,  and 
conducted  by  a  deputation  of  the  government  into  the  halL 
through  an  immense  concourse  of  citizens,  where  he  was  pre- 
sented to  the  governor,  by  the  minister  of  foreign  relations. 
Mr.  Rodney  delivered  an  address  in  his  own  language,  which 
was  interpreted  ;  and  having  concluded,  he  presented  his  cre- 
dentials. Rodriguez,  who  was  deeply  affected,  made  a  suita- 
ble reply.  But  the  interesting  relations  thus  established  be- 
tween the  government  of  Buenos  Ayres,  and  the  first  minis- 
ter from  any  foreign  power,  was  destined  to  be  of  short  con- 
tinuance. Mr.  Rodney's  health  was  not  re-established,  and 
he  continued  to  languish  until  the  10th  of  June,  1824,  when  he 
expired.  The  government  passed  a  decree  expressing  their 
grief  at  the  event,  directing  his  burial,  with  public  funeral  hon- 
ours, and  providing  for  the  erection  of  a  monument. 

During  the  year  1824,  the  political  and  internal  affairs  of  the 
United  Provinces  continued  tranquil  and  prosperous,  and  the 
governments  being  relieved  from  the  horrors  of  anarchy,  and 
in*  a  great  measure,  from  the  evils  of  war,  were  engaged  in  con- 
solidating the  republic,  and  in  improving  its  condition.  It  is 
an  evidence  of  the  stability  of  the  public  mind,  that  an  elec- 
tion of  a  new  chief  magistrate  for  Buenos  Ayres  took  place 
in  a  peaceable  manner,  and  without  occasioning  any  distur- 
bance, which  is  the  first  instance  in  which  there  had  been  it 
change  in  the  executive  without  a  revolution,  or  the  employ- 
ment of  military  force.  Attempts  were  made  for  a  re-union 
of  all  the  provinces  of  Rio  de  la  Plata,  and  the  establishment 
of  a  general  congress  ;  and  a  more  favourable  disposition,  both 


IN   THE  UNITED    PROVINCES.  22? 

in  the  capital  and  in  the  provinces,  was  manifested  for  this  de- 
sirable object. 

In  October,  1824,  general  Alvear  arrived  in  the  United 
States,  from  the  United  Provinces,  as  resident  minister  near 
our  government ;  and  on  the  1 1th  of  the  month  he  was  pre- 
sented to  the  President,  by  the  seretary  of  state.  In  his  ad- 
dress on  the  occasion,  he  says  that  he  was  charged  in  the 
name  of  all  the  provinces  of  Rio  de  la  Plata,  to  express  to 
the  government  of  the  United  States,  the  regard,  friendship, 
and  gratitude  they  entertain  for  the  magnanimous  expression 
with  which  they  had  been  honoured  in  the  solemn  recognition 
of  their  independence.  He  adds,  that  the  letters  which  he  has 
to  present  to  the  president,  will  unfold  more  fully  the  solici- 
tude and  sincere  desire  which  his  government  feels  for  an  in- 
timate union.  The  envoy  of  the  United  Provinces,  however, 
scarcely  entered  on  the  duties  of  his  office,  as  he  left  Wash- 
ington the  following  month,  to  return  to  his  country,  the  gov- 
ernment having  appointed  him  to  the  chief  command  of  the 
army  destined  against  the  royalists  in  Upper  Peru,  where  the 
Spaniards  still  maintained  their  authority  over  some  of  the 
provinces  ;  as  the  government  of  Buenos  Ayres,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  dissentions  and  civil  wars  which  had  prevailed, 
for  several  years,  had  made  but  little  effort  in  prosecuting  the 
war  against  the  Spaniards  of  Peru. 

A  congress  of  the  United  Provinces,  convened  in  Decem- 
ber, 1824,  at  Buenos  Ayres,  and  on  the  15th  of  the  month, 
the  executive  delivered  a  message,  which  unfolds  the  present 
condition  of  the  republic.  He  speaks  of  the  efforts  which  he 
had  made  to  secure  the  friendship  of  the  American  states  en- 
gaged in  the  same  cause,  and  says,  he  has  appointed  ministers 
to  Colombia,  and  also  to  Peru.  "  The  empire  of  Brazil,"  he 
remarks,  "  forms  a  contrast  to  the  noble  republic  of  the  Uni- 
ted States,  and  a  deplorable  exception  to  the  general  policy  of 
the  American  nations."  He  complains  of  the  base  and  low 
artifices  by  which  the  province  of  Monte  Video  has  been  sep- 
arated from  the  union,  and  retained  in  subjection  by  force  of 
arms.  Every  effort,  he  adds,  has  been  made  with  the  court 
©f  Rio  Janeiro,  to  induce  it  to  abandon  its  usurpations  and 
listen  to  the  dictatates  of  reason  and  justice,  which  might  pre- 
vent the  terrible  necessity  of  war,  but  without  success.  The 
executive,  however,  does  not  despair  of  effecting  an  accom- 
modation ;  he  speaks  in  high  terms  of  the  conduct  of  Great 
Britain,  and  says,  that  the  principles  she  has  adopted  towards 
the  American  nations,  must  soon  result  in  a  recognition  of 
their  independence. 

The  Brazilians  still  had  possession  of  the  province  of  the 


228  HISTORY    OP  THE    REVOLUTION 

Banda  Oriental  on  the  east  side  of  the  mer ;  but  in  April, 
1825,  a  revolution  took  place  in  the  Banda  Oriental,  which 
liberated  it  from  the  authority  of  Brazil*  Lavalleja,  Oribe, 
and  several  other  officers  and  inhabitants  of  the  Banda  Ori- 
ental, on  the  27th  of  April,  left  Buenos  Ayres,  and  crossed  to 
the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  where  they  expected  to  have 
found  two  hundred  men  assembled,  who  had  collected,  accor- 
dingly, but  had  taken  fright  and  dispersed. — Having  discover- 
.  ed  that  about  forty  of  the  Brazilian  troops,  and  thirty  of  the 
inhabitants,  who  had  been  pressed  into  their  service,  were  at 
Arenal  Grande,  Lavalleja  and  his  party  appeared  before 
them,  and  they  joined  and  followed  him.  Being  also  joined 
by  a  number  of  the  inhabitants,  he  entered  Soriano,  and,  re- 
organizing the  government  of  the  place,  marched  to  the  Galli- 
nas,  where  he  destroyed  about  two  hundred  Brazilian  troops, 
who  guarded  it.  Here  Lavalleja  found  plenty  of  horses  and 
provisions,  and  was  joined  by  the  militia  in  the  neighbourhood, 
and  even  by  many  of  the  Brazilians.  Re-passing  the  Negro, 
he  marched  towards  the  Perdido,  and  by  stratagem,  got  pos- 
session of  the  person  of  Fructus  Rivero,  the  Brazilian  milita- 
ry commander  of  the  country,  and  his  escort,  all  of  whom,  ex- 
cept the  officers,  joined  the  party  of  Lavalleja.  Rivero, 
himself,  afterwards  joined  the  revolutionary  cause,  and  public- 
ly burnt  his  imperial  uniform  in  the  streets  of  Santa  Lucia. 
He  also  summoned  the  commander  of  Monte  Video  to  surren- 
der that  place.  More  recent  intelligence  represents  that  the 
revolution  has  extended  throughout  the  province,  the  whole 
population  being  engaged  in  it ;  that  a  provisional  government 
had  been  established,  which  had  sent  deputies  to  the  general 
congress  of  the  United  Provinces,  soliciting  their  assistance 
and  co-operation  in  expelling  the  Brazilians  from  Montevideo. 
In  pursuance  of  the  solicitation  of  deputies  sent  to  the  gov- 
ernment of  Buenos  Ayres,  the  congress  passed  a  resolution, 
authorizing  the  executive  to  guard  the  territory  of  the  United 
Provinces,  from  the  dangers  which  might  arise  in  the  present 
state  of  the  Banda  Oriental,  and  to  re-enforce  the  line  of  the 
Uruguay. 

Lavalleja,  was  appointed  governor  and  captain  general  of 
the  province  of  Banda  Oriental,  and  on  the  I2th  of  Oct.  1825, 
he  attacked  a  corps  of  Brazilian  cavalry,  2,000  strong,  at  La- 
vandi,  and  obtained  a  signal  victory.  The  Orientals  form  the 
best  cavalry  in  the  world  ;  their  number,  was  about  the  same 
as  that  of  the  enemy.  "  To  meet  and  to  conquer/'  says  La- 
valleja, "  was  the  act  of  a  moment.  The  charge  was  the 
only  manoeuvre  that  took  place  on  both  sides,  and  it  was  the 
most  obstinate  ene  that  ever  took  place.  The  enemy  com- 


IN   THE    UNITED    PROVINCES.  229 

menced  theirs  by  a  heavy  discharge  of  fire  arras,  which  was 
despised  by  our  brave  troops,  who  with  sabre  in  hand,  and 
carbine  on  the  shoulder,  met,  encountered,  and  sworded  the 
foe  ;  and  after  completely  routing,  pursued  them  six  miles 
with  great  slaughter."  The  result  was  400  killed  on  the  field 
of  battle,  and  522  prisoners,  besides  many  wounded,  and  fu- 
gitives afterwards  taken.  The  entire  province  is  now  libera- 
ted, and  the  Brazilians  only  hold  possession  of  the  city  of 
Monte  Video.  After  carrying  on  open  war  with  the  country 
east  of  the  river  for  several  years,  and  a  disguised  one  with 
Buenos  Ayres,  the  Emperor  of  Brazil,  on  the  12th  of  Decem- 
ber, 1825,  declared  war  formally  against  the  United  Provin- 
ces, and  immediately  published  notice  of  the  blockade  of  the 
port  of  Buenos  Ayres.  No  intelligence  has  been  received  of 
the  events  of  this  war,  which  probably  may  result  in  important 
consequences.  Fortunately,  the  provinces  are  now  harmonious, 
are  all  at  peace,  and  united  on  some  plan  or  other,  into  one  con- 
federacy, the  form  and  principles  of  which  we  have  not  been 
able  to  ascertain.  But  there  can  be  no  doubt,  that  all  the 
provinces  will  make  common  cause  against  a  troublesome, 
and  mischievous  neighbour,  who  has  so  long  manifested  a  dis- 
position to  encroach  on  their  territory,  by  taking  advantage  of 
their  dissentions.  Fortunately  also,  no  enemy,  now  exists  on 
the  side  of  Upper  Peru,  so  that  the  provinces  will  be  enabled 
to  direct  their  whole  energies  against  the  Brazilians.  The 
United  Provinces  have  been  so  long  engaged  in  war  that  they 
possess  the  materials  for  forming  large  and  efficient  armies. 
The  military  force,  previous  to  this  war,  was  nearly  8,000 
strong.  The  Empire  of  Brazil  is  in  an  agitated  state,  and 
almost  exhibits  the  incipient  stage  of  revolution.  By  the  last 
accounts,  Bolivar  was  expected  at  Potosi,  where  general  Su- 
cre, has  a  veteran  army,  and  there  is  great  reason  to  believe, 
that  the  conquerors  of  Ayacucho,  intend  to  take  a  part  in  the 
war  against  the  Emperor  of  Brazil.  Perhaps  the  liberator  of 
Colombia  and  Peru  possesses  the  laudable  ambition  of  being 
the  liberator  of  all  South  America  ;  he  may  believe  that  the 
new  governments  will  not  be  safe  until  royalty  is  exterminated 
from  the  new?  world,  and  every  part  of  the  American  conti- 
nent is  not  only  independent,  but  FREE.  When  these  facts 
are  considered,  it  cannot  appear  improbable,  that  this  rash 
step  of  Don  Pedro,  should  bring  upon  him  the  arms  of  all  the 
southern  republics,  and  result  in  the  overthrow  of  his  empire, 
and  the  establishment  of  a  republic  which  shall  take  its  rank 
in  the  family  of  nations,  in  the  Southern  hemisphere.  The 
province  of  Paraguay,  is  still  entirely  independent,  and  has 
no  political  connexion  with  Buenos  Ayres,  or  any  of  the  otb* 


230  HISTORY   OP   THE    REVOLUTION,  &C. 

er  provinces  ;  it  has  taken  no  part  in  the  bloody  events  of  the 
revolution,  which  disgraced  and  devastated  the  confederacy. 
Not  long  after  Belgrano,  in  1810,  marched  against  the  royal- 
ists of  Paraguay,  and  was  defeated   on  the  river  Tacuari* 
within  thirty  or  forty  miles  of  Assumption,  the  Paraguays  ef- 
fected a  revolution,  without  the  aid  of  Buenos  Ayres.     They 
deposed  Velasco,  the  royal  governor,  and  established  a  gov- 
ernment for  the   province,  but  refused  every   solicitation   to 
unite  with  the  confederacy.     There  were  at  first  two  parties, 
one  headed  by  Yedros,  who  had  commanded  the  troops,  which 
defeated  Belgrario,  and  the  other  by  Dr.  Francia  who  was  ed- 
ucated to  the  law  ;  an'd  to  avoid  civil  commotions,  the  people 
appointed  them  both  as  joint  governors.     Dr.  Francia,  howev- 
er, soon  found  means  to  displace  his   colleague,  and  a  public 
meeting   of  the  citizens  conferred  on   him   the  supreme  au- 
thority, which  he  has  ever  since  exercised.     He  is  styled  dic- 
tator, ^and   has  for  years  possessed  the  power  of  an  absolute 
sovereign,   without  any  of  the    appendages  or   expenses  of 
royalty,  or  any   of  its  usual  means  of  support.     He  has  no 
nobility,  no  courtiers,  and  no  favourites,  nor  does  he  make  use 
of  official  patronage,  as  a  means  of  maintaining  his  ascenden- 
cy.    His  government,  is  a  mixture  of  patriarchial,  and  milita- 
ry authority  ;  without  any  system,  or  written  laws.     He  exer- 
cises nearly   all  the  funftions  of  government  himself,    man- 
aging  the  affairs  of  the  state,  as  a  father  does   those  of  his 
family.     The  only  civil  officers  he  employs,  are  a  postmastere 
and  a  collector.  The  peculiarly  submissive,  and  docile  charac- 
ter of  the  Paraguays,  produced  by  the  Jesuits,  which  still  re- 
mains, contributes   to  the  support   of  this   singular  govern- 
ment. ;  yet  the  strength  of  it,  is  undoubtedly  military  power, 
as  the  dictator  has  organized  a  national  militia  of  6,000  men, 
a  part  of  which  are  kept  constantly  in  service.     He  prohibits 
the  freedom  of  the  press,  and  excludes  all  foreigners  from 
Paraguay, 


HISTORY 

AND  PRESENT  STATE  OF 

CHILE. 


CHAPTER  X1I1. 

Extent  and  boundaries — the  Andes ;  summits  and  passes  of—mar* 
itime  border,  bays  and  harbours — rivers — -face  of  the  coun- 
try— soil— climate  and  productions— desert  of  Atacama — • 
mines — copper  mines  of  Coquimbo — districts — islands — San- 
tiago— Valparaiso — government — population — army— navy 
—^commerce — exports. 

The  republic  of  Chile  comprises  the  tract  of  country  that 
extends  from  the  summit  of  the  Andes,  westward  to  the  Paci- 
fic, and  along  the  coast  of  the  Pacific  from  the  desert  of  Ata- 
cama, in  latitude  25°  south,  to  the  straits  of  Magellan,  in  lat- 
itude 54°  south,  according  to  some  authorities  ;  but  according 
to  Pazos,  it  extends  no  further  south  than  the  gulf  of  Guayte- 
cas,  in  latitude  42°.  its  length,  according  to  the  first  descrip- 
tion, would  be  about  2,000  miles  :  according  to  the  last,  less 
than  1,200;  its  average  breadth  is  estimated  at  about  140 
Biiles.  Its  northern  boundary  is  the  desert  of  Atacama  ;  its 
eastern,  the  Andes  ;  its  southern,  the  Patagonian  territory, 
or  the  straits  of  Magellan,  and  its  western,  the  Pacific. 

The  lofty  summits  of  the  Andes,  which  traverse  the  entire 
continent  of  South  America,  skirt  the  whole  eastern  border 
of  Chile,  and  form  its  eastern  boundary.  The  highest  sum- 
mits in  this  range  are  Manflos,  in  latitude  28°  45',  the  Tupun- 
gato,  in  lat.  33Q  24';  the  Deseabezado,  in  lat.  35Q  ;  the  Blai> 
guillo,  in  35°  4' ;  the  Langavi,  in  35°  24' ;  the  Chilian,  in36Q, 
and  the  Cociabado,  in  43°  ;  some  of  these  are  more  than 


232  HISTORY    AND    PRESENT 

2,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  ocean.  There  are  fourteen 
volcanoes,  which  are  in  a  constant  state  of  eruption,  and  a 
greater  number  that  discharge  smoke  only  at  intervals.  The 
two  principal  passes  of  the  Andes  lie  between  the  united  prov- 
inces of  La  Plata  and  Chile,  those  of  Putamda  and  Patos  ; 
the  first  leads  from  the  city  of  Mendoza,  and  is  about  200 
miles  in  length  ;  the  latter  leads  from  the  city  of  San  Juan, 
and  is  longer.  To  the  north,  the  Andes  are  broader,  but  to  the 
south  they  are  said  to  subside  into  such  gentle  slopes,  that  a 
good  carriage  road  might  be  made  across  the  country  .which  is 
unsettled. 

Waters. — Like  Peru,  Chile  has  an  extensive  maritime  border 
on  the  Pacific,  and  is  much  better  accommodated  with  bays 
and  harbours,  which  are  numerous  along  the  whole  coast. 
The  most  considerable  is  the  great  gulf  of  Guaytecas,  in  which 
is  situated  the  Archipelago  of  Chiloe.  Few  countries  are  so 
•well  supplied  with  rivers  as  Chile.  Lying  at  the  foot  of  the 
Andes,  it  naturally  receives  the  waters  produced  by  the  melt- 
ing of  that  immense  body  of  snow,  which  annually  falls  upon 
those  mountains.  There  are  more  than  one  hundred  rivers  of 
considerable  size,  which  run  westward,  of  which  fifty-two  fall 
directly  into  the  ocean.  The  principal  of  these  rivers,  some 
of  which  are  navigable  some  distance  into  the  interior,  are  the 
Huasco,  Lospontos,  Maypu,  Maule,  Chilian,  Ilata,  Biobio, 
Imperial,  and  Valdiva. 

Surface,  soil,  climate,  and  productions. — The  numerous  ridg- 
es by  which  the  surface  of  Chile  is  broken,  present  obstacles 
to  the  internal  communication,  but  such  as  are  no  where  in- 
surmountable. The  loose  composition  of  those  ridges  is 
such,  that  roads  may  be  formed  along  their  sides  with  compar- 
atively little  labour ;  and  when  made,  such  is  the  temperate 
regularity  of  the  seasons,  that,  with  few  repairs,  they  may  be 
preserved  for  ages.  But  the  wide  desart,  and  the  lofty  Cor- 
dillera, by  which  Chile  is  enclosed  and  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  continent,  presents  a  barrier,  consisting  of  a  dreary 
•waste,  and  a  range  of  mountains  elevated  in  such  ragged 
masses,  and  reared  so  far  into  the  region  of  snow,  that  it  is 
only  passable  for  mules  by  some  few  narrow  passes,  and  dur- 
ing particular  seasons  of  the  year.  The  desart  of  Atacama 
may  be  said  to  commence  in  Chile,  almost  immediately  after 
crossing  the  Juncal,  or  dry  river,  as  it  is  sometimes  called  ; 
thence  to  the  river  Salado,  the  northern  boundary  of  the  state, 
is  a  distance  of  fifty  miles  ;  th,ence  to  the  town  of  Atacama, 
in  Upper  Peru,  is  a  distance  of  nearly  three  hundred  miles, 
by  the  way  of  the  coast,  and  the  road  passes  wholly  over  a  dry, 
sandy  plain,  where  the  traveller  meets  no  living  thing,  either 


S.TATE   OF    CHILE.  233 

of  the  vegetable  or  animal  kingdom  ;  and  losing  sight'  of  ev* 
ery  other  guide,  his  way  is  often  only  to  be  directed  by  the 
bleached  bones  of  mules,  which  have  perished  in  attempting 
to  force  a  passage  over  that  terrible  waste.  Instead  of  pas- 
sing this  dreary  region,  it  is  generally  thought  safer  and  better 
to  climb  the  steep  crags  of  the  mountains,  and  take  the  road 
leading  over  the  Andes,  along  their  giddy  precipices  and  nar* 
row  passes.  Travellers  and  post-riders  sometime  cross  the 
deserts  of  Atacama,  along  the  lower  and  more  level  road  ; 
but  few  or  no  traders  or  carriers  ever  venture  to  pass  that 
way;  nor  is  it  presumed  any  military  leader  would  lightly  be 
induced  to  encounter  its  difficulties  for  the  purpose  of  carrying 
hostlities  along  that  route  into  Chile.  The  desart  of  Atacama 
may,  therefore,  be  considered  as  a  great  natural  barrier,  by 
which  it  is  closed  on  that  side  against  both  commercial  and 
hostile  visiters. 

From  the  Andes,  the  inclination  is  so  great,  that  all  the  riv- 
ers flow  with  the  rapidity  of  torrents,  and  are,  therefore,  not 
navigable.     They  serve  to  irrigate   the  vallies,   and  render 
them  the  most  fertile  in  the  world.     The  climate  makes   this 
method  of  cultivation  absolutely  necessary — for  from  the  Sa- 
lado  to  the  Data,  that  is  from  25°  to  36°  of  south  latitude, 
not  a  cloud  is  to  be  seen  above  the  horizon  from  the  month  of 
November  to  the  month  of  May.     The  atmosphere,    during 
this  period,  is  perfectly  clear  ;  and  the  dews  are  scarcely  per- 
ceptible, nor  is  the  heat  oppressive.     The  proximity  of  the 
Andes   tempers  the  air,  and  the  mercury  fluctuates  between 
70  and  80  degrees   of  Fahrenheit,  and  rarely  rises  to  85  de- 
grees.— Thunder  storms,  so  frequent  on  the  east  of  the  Andes, 
are  unknown  in  this  part  of  Chile.     Winter  commences  in  the 
month  of  May  ;  the  cold  is  mild,  and  the  rains  gentle,  and  un- 
attended with  wind.     The  rains   of  the  winter  fertilize  the 
hills,  and  the  plains  which  cannot  be  irrigated  during  that 
season,  afford  pasture  for  the  cattle.     The  spring  commences 
in  September,  and  the  face  of  nature,  in  Chile,  is  then  pecu- 
liarly beautiful.     The  hills  are  verdant  and  covered  with  innu- 
merable flowering  shrubs,  and  the  plains  present  to  the  eye  a 
carpet  of  flowers.     The  abundance  of  water,  and  the  pecu- 
liarity of  climate,  enable  the  inhabitants  to  raise  all  the  fruits 
of  the  earth  in  great  perfection.     The  wheat  which  is  cultiva- 
ted in  the  valleys,  is  of  excellent  quality,  and  the  produce,  sel- 
dom less  than  forty  times  the  seed — sometimes  ninety,  and  on 
the  best  land,  even  one  hundred.     Indian  corn  is  likewise  cul- 
tivated, and  produces  abundantly.     Barley  is  raised  in  great 
quantities  for  the  use  of  horses  and  mules,  which,  in  the  win- 
ter, are  fed  on  this  grain,  mixed  with  chopped  straw,  as  in 
VOL.  II.  38 


'234  HISTORY   AND    PRESENT 

Arabia  and  old  Spain  ;  hemp  and  flax  grow  luxuriantly.  Cot- 
ton is  here  and  there  cultivated  for  domestic  manufactures, 
and  there  is  one  sugar  plantation.  The  climate  and  soil  is  well 
adapted  to  the  culture  of  sugar,  but  the  inhabitants  have  been 
long  accustomed  to  get  that  article  from  Peru,  in  exchange 
for  their  wheat,  and  are  not  disposed  to  change  their  ancient 
habits.  Rice,  likewise,  would  grow  on  the  low  lands,  but  it 
is  brought  from  Peru. 

South  of  the  river  Ilata,  the  climate  varies  ;  rains  are  fre- 
quent in  the  summer,  and  in  the  winter  are  attended  by  storms 
of  wind.  The  grape  is  chiefly  cultivated  in  these  districts, 
and  the  wine  is  better  than  where  the  vineyards  are  irrigated  ; 
the  olive  grows  luxuriantly  throughout  ail  Chile,  and  the  oil  is 
of  the  first  quality.  On  the  banks  of  the  river  Maule,  and  on 
all  the  rivers  south  of  35  degrees  17  minutes,  there  is  excel- 
lent timber,  and  the  whole  country  abounds  with  forests  of  a 
thorny  minosa,  which  makes  good  charcoal,  and  is  in  general 
used  for  fuel.  Mines  of  the  precious  metals  abound  in  almost 
every  part  of  Chile,  and  their  annual  produce,  in  prosperous 
times  has  been  estimated  at  3,000,000  of  dolars.  In  the 
year  1825,  a  silver  mine  was  discovered,  thirty  or  forty  miles 
from  Coquimbo,  which  is  represented  to  be  of  the  most  ex- 
traordinary richness.  The  vein  is  about  forty  miles  in  extent, 
and  the  metal  is  said  to  merit  the  name  of  native  silver ;  it  is 
thought  riot  to  be  mineralised,  but  rather  mixed  with  quartz  and 
feldspar.  Silver  to  the  value  of  half  a  million  of  dollars  is  said 
have  been  dug  from  this  mine  in  twenty  days,  and  it  is  suppo- 
sed that  in  one  year,  its  produce  will  exceed  five  millions. 
Besides  the  precious  metals,  the  copper  mines  of  Coquimbo 
actually  produced,  during  the  year  ending  the  1st  of  May, 
1318,  amidst  the  difficulties  of  the  times,  and  shipped  in  foreign 
vessels,  chiefly  of  the  United  States,  forty-one  thousand  quin- 
tals. 

The  copper  mines  are  principally  situated  near  the  coast, 
and  are  believed  to  be  the  most  productive  in  the  world.  In 
addition  to  the  copper,  there  has,  also,  been  shipped  from 
Chile,  a  considerable  amount  of  tin.  Of  these  two  metals, 
the  annual  production  may  be  estimated  at  about  five  hundred 
thousand  dollars.  The  mines  of  iron  and  quicksilver  are 
very  abundant  ;  mines  of  lead  are  also  numerous  and  rich, 
but  almost  entirely  neglected :  antimony  and  fossil  salt  are 
found  in  great  quantities  ;  salt  springs  abound  ;  salammoniac 
and  salt-petre  are  also  abundant. 

The  republic  of  Chile  is  divided  into  the  following  districts 
or  provinces  : — Copiapa,  Guasco,  Coquimbo,  Cusco,  Petorca, 
Quillota,  Melipilla,  Santa  Rosa,  Rancagua,  Colcbagua,  Curi- 
co,  Maule,  Chilian,  Isla  de  Maule,  Canquenes,  Ilata,  Pucha- 


STATE   OF   CHILE* 

cay,  Conception  de  Chile,  Isla  de  la  Laxa.  The  country  oc- 
cupied by  the  warlike  tribes  of  Araucana,  extends  from  the 
river  Biobio,  in  latitude  26°  50'  to  the  39th  degree  of  latitude, 
and  from  the  Andes  to  the  Pacific.  It  is  divided  into  four  dis- 
tricts or  provinces,  by  lines  running  from  north  to  south.  The 
country  between  the  river  Totlen  and  the  southern  boundary 
of  the  republic,  is  called  Huilli  Maypro.  There  are  eighty- 
two  islands  in  the  Archipelago  of  Chiloe,  thirty-two  of  which 
are  inhabited  by  Indians,  or  the  descendants  of  Europeans. 
The  largest  is  Chiloe,  180  miles  in  length  from  north  to  south, 
with  a  breadth  of  60,  at  the  widest  place. 

The  city  of  Santiago  is  situated  in  the  district  of  Melipilla. 
and  was  founded  the  17th  of  February,  1514,  by  Don  Pedro 
de  Valdivia,  on  the  south  bank  of  ttye  Maypu,  in  33°  31'  south 
latitude.  Santiago  contains  40,000  inhabitants.  The  plain  on 
which  the  city  stands,  extends  along  the  foot  of  the  Andes, 
certainly  to  the  line  ;  and  it  is  believed  quite  to  the  isthmus  of 
Panama  north,  and  south  to  the  straits  of  Magellan.  This  is 
the  only  uniform  level  in  Chile  ;  from  hence  to  the  coast  the 
descent  is  rapid  and  broken  by  irregular  mountains  and  vallies. 
On  the  eastern-  extremity  of  the  city,  rises  the  small  rocky  hill 
of  Santa  Lucia,  formerly  called  the  mountain  of  Gudon.  These 
insulated  hills  are  frequently  seen  on  the  great  plain  of  Chile. 
A  broad  road  extends  round  the  south  side  of  the  town  like 
the  boulevards  of  Paris,  and  separates  it  from  the  suburbs, 
which  are  extensive  and  well  built.  The  river  is  broad  and 
shallow,  and  in  summer  flows  in  several  channels.  There  are 
in  Santiago  eleven  convents,  seven  nunneries,  four  parochial 
churches,  three  hospitals,  an  university,  and  a  mint. 

The  port  of  Valparaiso  is  situated  in  33°  I'  45*  south  lati- 
tude in  the  district  of  Petorca.  The  town  extends  around  the 
bay  from  the  castle  of  Saint  Antonio,  for  nearly  a  mile,  and 
is  separated  from  Almindral,  a  suburb  of  Valparaiso,  by  a  low 
beach  ;  the  houses  are  irregularly  scattered  over  the  sides  of 
steep  hills,  which  rise  abruptly  from  the  shore,  and  extend 
along  the  ravines  of  baint  Augustine,  Saint  Francisco,  and 
Gomez,  the  ground  being  very  broken  and  rugged.  The  coun- 
try near  the  town  is  very  barren,  and  all  the  supplies  are  drawn 
'  from  Quillotta.  The  population  of  Valparaiso,  including  the 
Almindral,  does  not  exceed  6,500  souls.  Conception  is  the 
third  city  of  Chile,  and  is  considered  the  metropolis  of  the 
southern  part.  Talcahua.no,  its  port,  is  six  miles  distant,  and 
has  a  fine  harbour.  Coquimbo  and  Copiapo  have  good  har- 
bours. Valdivia  has  one  of  the  finest  on  the  coast ;  but  it  has 
no  cultivated  country  around  it  to  give  it  importance.  The 
city  is  five  miles  from  the  sea  on  a  river  of  the  same  name. 


236  HISTORY    AI$D    PRESENT,  &C. 

The  island  of  Juan  Fernandes,  off  this  coast,  was  the  resi? 
dence  of  Alexander  Selkirk,  whose  story  gave  rise  to  the  r<5- 
mance  of  Robinson  Crusoe. 

Government  and  Population. — Since  the  liberation  of  Chile, 
in  1817,  an  independent  republican  government  has  been  main- 
tained the  principal  part  of  the  time,  under  a  chief  magistrate, 
called  a  supreme  director.  A  congress  was  convened  in  1 825. 
which  framed  a  constitution  for  the  republic, f  which  now 
forms  the  basis  of  the  gouernment.  The  independence  of  this 
country  has  been  acknowledge  by  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain.  The  population  of  Chile,  exclusive  of  the  independ- 
ent tribes  of  Indians,  is  estimated  at  1,200,000  inhabitants, 
most  of  which  are  north  of  the  river  Biobio. 

Army,  Navy,  and  Commerce. — In  July,  1818,  the  regular 
armyY)f  Chile  amounted  to  8,400  men,  exclusive  of  militia* 
which  were  28,960  ;  an  army,  respectable  for  its  numbers  and 
discipline,  is  still  maintained,  and  is  distinguished  for  its  well 
known  services  in  the  liberation  of  Peru.  A  formidable  navy 
was  organized  in  1818,  and  has  ever  since  been  efficiently  em- 
ployed in  aiding  the  great  cause  of  liberty  and  independence. 
The  principal  articles  of  export  from  Chile,  consist  of  gold, 
silver,  copper,  tin,  wheat,  flour,  hemp,  cordage,  hides,  tallow, 
jerked  beef,  vicuna,  and  guanaco  wool,  chinchilla  skins, 
and  several  kinds  of  dried  fruits,  figs,  raisins,  &c.  The  trade 
of  Chile  is  chiefly  carried  on  with  the  United  States,  England, 
and  the  neighbouring  republics.  Chile  may  be  considered  the 

§ranary  of  South  America.  The  commerce  of  the  United 
tates  with  Chile  is  important  and  increasing  ;  from  February, 
1817,  to  July,  1818,  there  was  exported  to  Chile,  by  our  citi- 
zens, merchandize  to  the  amount  of  $  1,375,000.  Besides  the 
direct  commerce  of  the  United  States  with  Chile,  which  has 
been  estimated  at  $2,000,000,  the  opening  of  its  ports,  which  is 
one  of  the  consequences  of  its  independence,  affords  the  most 
important  advantages  to  the  whale  fishery,  pursued  in  front  of  the 
coast  of  Chile,  in  which  from  fifteen  to  twenty  American  ships 
are  engaged  yearly,  and  also  to  the  trade  with  the  north  west 
coast,  in  which  about  fifteen  vessels  from  the  United  States  are 
employed  annually.  Great  advantages  will  likewise  accrue  to 
the  trade,  which  our  citizens  pursue  of  collecting  cargoes  of 
seal  skins  and  sandal  wood  on  the  islands  in  the  Pacific  ocean, 
and  carrying  them  to  China,  where  they  find  a  ready  market, 
and  the  avails  purchase  a  home  cargo  of  great  value.  The 
settlement  on  Columbia  river  will  ultimately  maintain  an  im- 
portant trade  with  Chile,  which  will  afford  a  good  market  for 
ship  and  other  timber  with  which  that  country  abounds. 


HISTORY 


OF    THE 


REVOLUTION  IN  CHILE. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

Establishment  of  a  junta—disturbance  at  Santiago — congress 
called — complaints  as  to  the  mode  of  election — measures  of 
the  congress — it  is  overthrown  by  the  Carreras — their  admin- 
istration^-Chile  invaded  from  Peru — events  of  the  war — revo- 
lution in  the  government — treaty  concluded — dissentions  among 
the  patriots — success  of  the  royalists — their  authority  re-estab- 
lished— expedition  of  San  Martin—victory  at  Chacabaco — 
emancipation  of  the  country — O'Higgins  appointed  director — 
expedition  from  Peru — defeat  of  the  patriots — victory  oj 
Maypu — its  effects — squadron  under  lord  Cochrane — expedi- 
tion to  Peru — war  with  the  Jlraucanian  Indians  and  Bene- 
vides — piracies  of  Benevides — resignation  of  O'Higgins — es- 
tablishment of  a  new  government — general  Freyre  chosen  di- 
rector— Chile  affords  further  succour  to  Peru — itsjleet  block- 
ades Callao — its  exploits — expedition*  to  Chiloe — state  of  the 
country — conclusion. 

THE  first  revolutionary  movement  in  Chile,  occurred  in  San- 
tiago, where  the  inhabitants,  in  July,  1810,  compelled  the  cap- 
tain-general to  resign,  and  count  de  la  Conquista  was  appoint- 
ed to  succeed  him,  who  favoured  a  revolution.  He  called  to- 
gether the  most  respectable  land-holders,  in  September,  1810, 
to  take  into  consideration  the  present  condition  of  the  country 
and  of  Spain,  and  to  decide  an  the  measures  proper  to  be 
adopted.  The  result  was  the  creation  of  a  junta,  of  which  the 
count  de  la  Conquista  was  president.  The  junta  determined 
on  assembling  a  congress,  and  prescribed  regulations  for  the 
choice  of  representatives.  The  election  in  Santiago  took 


238  HISTORY    (JF   THE 

place  on  the  1 1th  of  April,  1811,  and  a  detachment  of 
under  Don  J.  Figueroa,  was  stationed  in  the  square  of  the 
consulado  to  preserve  order.  This  officer,  although  a  Span- 
iard, had  declared  in  favour  of  the  revolvtion,  and  was  in  the 
employ  of  the  junta  ;  yet,  nevertheless,  he  had  formed  a  fac- 
tion against  it,  and  availed  himself  of  his  situation  and  of  the 
Occasion,  to  attempt  to  crush  the  revolution.  A  skirmish  en* 
sued  between  the  troops  that  adhered  to  Figueroa,  and  those 
who  remained  faithful  to  the  junta,  in  which  fifty  or  sixty  men 
were  killed.  The  result  was  favourable  to  the  popular  cause, 
and  the  leading  conspirators  were  seized  and  banished,  except 
Figueroa,  who  was  executed.  After  this,  the  royal  audiencii 
was  dissolved,  and  its  powers  vested  in  a  new  tribuunal. 

The  election  of  deputies  to  the  congress  was  made  accord- 
ing to  the  regulation  of  the  junta,  which  prescribed  the  num- 
ber for  each  municipality,  but  not  according  to  the  population. 
There  was  consequently  little  equality  in  the  representation  of 
different  towns,  which  occasioned  complaints  and  remonstran- 
ces. The  three  brothers,  of  the  name  of  Carrera,  sons  of  a 
wealthy  land-holder  in  Santiago,  joined  in  the  clamours,  and 
put  themselves  at  the  head  of  the  disaffected,  of  which  the 
military  of  that  city  formed  a  part.  The  congress  acknowlddg- 
ed  the  necessity  of  a  reformation  in  the  representation,  which 
being  made,  tranquillity  was  restored,  and  the  congress  re- 
sumed its  session.  It  passed  a  decree,  declaring  that  all  Span- 
iards who  were  dissatisfied  with  the  new  order  of  things,  should 
leave  the  country  within  six  months,  in  which  period  they  might 
dispose  of  their  property  and  remove  with  all  their  effects.  The 
congress  also  enacted  many  salutary  laws  for  the  reformation 
of  the  abuses  of  the  old  system  ;  the  curates  were  to  be  paid 
from  the  public  treasury,  not  by  their  parishioners  ;  the  chil- 
dren of  slaves  born  in  future  were  declared  free,  and  the  re- 
strictions were  removed  from  commerce  ;  the  ancient  law  by 
which  government  disposed  of  places  in  the  municipalities, 
was  abrogated,  and  it  was  provided  that  the  members  of  the 
municipalities  should  be  elected  annually  ;  many  useless  offi- 
ces were  abolished,  and  the  salaries  of  others  reduced.  A 
manufactory  of  fire-arms,  and  a  military  school,  called  artillc- 
.  ria  practica,  were  estabished,  and  the  powers  of  the  junta 
prescribed. 

Notwithstanding  these  revolutionary  measures,  Abascal,  the 
viceroy  of  Peru,  remained  on  apparent  terms  of  friendship 
with  the  new  government. 

Encouraged  by  the  success  of  their  first  attempt,  the  Car- 
reras  formed  a  plan  for  effecting  the  revolution,  and  placing 
themselves  at  the  head  of  that  government.  And  their  connec- 


iH  OtflLE. 

tidn  with  the  army,  one  being  major  in  the  grenadiers,  and 
another  captain  in  the  artillery,  facilitated  the  success  of  theit 
enterprise.  Having  acquired  an  ascendancy  over  the  troops* 
and  placing  themselves  at  their  head,  on  the  15th  of  November, 
1811,  they  compelled  congress  to  depose  the  junta,  and  ap- 
point three  new  members  of  whom  J.  M.  Carrera  was  one. 
This  junta,  the  offspring  of  violence  and  usurpartion,  immedi- 
ately attempted  to  render  itself  absolute  ;  a  new  regiment  of 
cavalry  was  formed,  and  J.  M.  Carrera  placed  at  its  head  ;  arfd 
having  strengthened  themselves  sufficiently,  on  the  2d  of  De- 
cember they  dissolved  the  congress.  The  junta  now  ruled 
without  control,  relying  for  its  support  entirely  on  the  military, 
who  were  greatly  devoted  to  the  Carreras. 

The  administration  of  the  Carreras  occasioned  opposition 
and  disaffection,  which  surrounded  them  with  difficulties  and 
dangers  ;  one  conspiracy  against  them  was  formed  after  anoth- 
er, four  of  which  they  succeeded  in  suppressing.  At  length, 
to  increase  their  embarrassments,  they  quarrelled  among  them- 
selves, and  J.  M.  Carrera  withdrew  from  the  government; 
but  a  reconciliation  having  been  effected,  he  resumed  his  for- 
mer situation  in  October,  1812. 

These  dissentions  and  disorders  in  Chile,  induced  the 
viceroy  of  Lima  to  send  an  expedition  against  that  country, 
under  general  Pareja,  which  early  in  the  year  1813,  attack- 
ed and  took  possession  of  the  post  of  Talcahuano,  with- 
out resistance.  From  this  place  he  advanced  to  La  Con- 
ception, where  the  garrison  declared  in  his  favour,  which  in- 
creased his  force  to  4,000  men.  He  marched  towards  the 
river  Maule. 

To  oppose  Pareja,  J.  M.  Carrera,  leaving  his  brother  Juan 
Jose  in  his  place  in  the  government,  marched  at  the  head  of 
0,000  men  and  approached  the  royal  army.  On  the  night  of  the 
12th  of  April,  1813,  he  sent  a  detachment  of  troops  to  sur- 
prise and  attack  the  enemy  in  their  encampment.  This 
attack  was  successiul,  but  not  without  great  loss  to  the 
patriots.  It  however  induced  Pareja  to  retire  to  Chilian, 
where  he  erected  fortifications  for  his  security  ;  and  the  gar- 
risons which  he  had  left  at  Talcahuano  and  La  Conception, 
were  obliged  to  capitulate,  but  their  commanders  escaped  to 
Peru. 

To  free  themselves  from  the  influence  of  the  Carreras,  the 
junta  sent  Juan  Jose  Carrera  to  the  army,  and  filled  his  place, 
so  that  it  now  consisted  of  J.  A.  Perez,  A.  Eyzaguirre  and 
M.  Infante.  They  removed  to  the  town  of  Talca,  near  the 
seat  of  war,  the  better  to  direct  its  operations  and  watch  over 
the  safety  of  the  country.  J.  M.  Carrera  continued  to  com- 


240  HlSTdftY    OF    THE 

inand  the  an&y,  and  governed  without  restraint  over  the  coiin- 
try  where  his  troops  were  stationed  ;  and  his  conduct  and  the 
devastations  of  his  army'so  exasperated  the  people  throughout 
the  intendancy  of  La  Conception,  that  they  declared  for  the 
royalists.  It  was  deemed  necessary  to  remove  from  the  com- 
mand of  the  army  a  man  who  had  rendered  himself  so  obnox- 
ious to  the  people.  Carrera  was  accordingly  displaced  by 
the  junta,  and  colonel  O'Higgins  appointed  to  succeed  him, 
and  colonel  M'Kenna,  second  in  command,  on  the  24th  of 
November,  1813.  Carrera  refused  to  relinquish  the  com- 
mand, but  being  abandoned  by  the  army,  he  was  compelled 
to  yield,  and  on  his  way  to  Santiago,  with  his  brother  Luis, 
both  were  taken  by  a  party  of  royalists  and  conducted  to  Chil- 
ian. 

For  nearly  a  year  the  Spanish  forces  remained  at  Chilian, 
and  no  important  military  operations  took  place.  On  the 
death  of  their  commander,  Pereja,  general  Gainza  arrived 
from  Lima,  with  re-enforcements,  and  took  the  command. 
On  the  19th  of  March,  1814,  Gainza  attacked  M'Kenna,  with 
one  division  of  the  Chilean  army,  encamped  at  El  Membril- 
lal,  twelve  miles  from  Chilian,  but  was  repulsed  with  loss  ;  and 
the  next  day  O'Higgins,  who  had  come  to  the  relief  of  M'Ken- 
na, engaged  the  royal  army  with  success,  and  it  suffered  se- 
verely. Not  discouraged  by  these  checks,  Gainza  resolved 
to  march  against  Santiago,  which  was  in  a  defenceless  con- 
dition ;  and  advancing  rapidly,  the  royalists  crossed  the 
Maule,  and  O'Higgins  pursuing  them,  encamped  on  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  river.  In  the  night,  O'Higgins  crossed  the 
river  with  his  army,  without  destroying  his  encampment,  by 
which  movement  Gainza  was  completely  deceived  ;  being  so 
surprised  in  the  morning  at  seeing  an  army  before  him,  and 
an  encampment  in  his  rear,  which  he  supposed  filled  with 
troops,  he  abandoned  his  plan  and  retired  to  the  town  of  Tal- 
ca,  which  he  had  taken  a  few  days  before.  O'Higgins  open- 
ed a  communication  with  Santiago,  and  cut  off  that  of  the  en- 
emy with  Chilian. 

The  fall  of  Talca  was  attributed  to  the  want  of  energy  and 
courage  in  the  junta,  who  left  the  town  several  days  before 
the  approach  of  the  enemy,  and  took  off  a  part  of  the  garri- 
son for  their  own  security.  This  occasioned  a  revolution  ; 
the  junta  was  deposed  and  the  government  entrusted  to  Don 
F.  Lastra,  governor  of  Valparaiso,  who  was  styled  supreme 
director.  At  this  time,  propositions  for  an  accommodation 
were  received  from  the  viceroy  of  Lima,  brought  by  captain 
Hilly ar  of  the  British  frigate  Phoebe,  which  induced  Lastra 
to  call  a  meeting  of  the  principal  inhabitants  of  Santiago. 


REVOLUTION  1%    CJHILE.  241 

which  decided  that  the  director  should  propose  terms  of  capU 
tulation  to  general  Gainza.  The  result  was  a  capitulation,  04 
the  5th  of  May,  whereby  Gainza  and  his  troops  were  to  re* 
Embark  for  Lima,  within  two  months,  and  to  leave  the  places 
he  then  occupied  in  the  same  state  of  military  defence  as  he 
had  found  them.  It  was  also  stipulated  that  the  viceroy  should 
acknowledge  the  government  of  Chile,  and  all  the  changes 
which  had  been  made,  and  that  Chile  should  send  a  certain 
number  of  deputies,  to  the  cortes  of  Spain,  as  members  of 
that  body.  Two  colonels  were  delivered  by  each  party,  as 
hostages,  and  peace  was  restored  for  a  season.  The  only  ob- 
ject of  the  Spanish  chiefs,  however,  seems  to  have  been  to  gain 
time  and  save  their  army,  as  Gainza,  under  various  pretences 
refused  to  fulfil  the  articles  of  the  treaty,  and  by  this  base  ex- 
pedient preserved  his  army  until  general  Osorio  arrived  with 
re-enforcements  from  Lima. 

The  two  Carreras  having  made  their  escape  from  Chilian, 
exerted  all  their  influence  to  rouse  their  adherents,  and  form 
a  party  subservient  to  their  ambition  ;  and  by  the  assistance  of 
their  partizans,  and  by  bribing  the  troops  at  Santiago,  they  de- 
posed Lastra  on  the  23d  of  August,  1814,  and  re-established 
the  junta.  J.  M.  Carrera,  M.  M.  Ursua,  and  J.  Urive,  were 
the  members.  This  revolution,  effected  by  force  and  corrup- 
tion, excited  much  indignation  with  the  inhabitants  of  Santia- 
go, not  so  much  on  account  of  attachment  to  Lastra,  as  from 
hostility  to  the  Carreras,  and  disapprobation  of  the  means  by 
which  they  had  again  placed  themselves  at  the  head  of  affairs. 
At  the  desire  of  the  inhabitants,  O'Higgins  marched  with  his 
troops  towards  the  capital.  Some  skirmishing  took  place  be- 
tween the  troops  of  O'Higgins,  and  those  of  Carrera,  and  when 
a  decisive  action  was  on  the  eve  of  being  fought,  and  breth- 
ren engaged  in  the  same  cause,  were  about  to  shed  each  oth- 
er's blood,  a  deputy  arrived  from  the  Spanish  general,  Osorio, 
with  intelligence,  that  Abascal,  the  viceroy  of  Lima,  disapprov- 
ed of  the  capitulation.  This  put  an  end  to  the  civil  war,  and 
the  imminent  danger  of  the  country  induced  O'Higgins  to  sub- 
mit to  the  authority  of  the  junta.  Carrera,  under  pretence  of 
newly  organizing  the  army,  dismissed  such  of  the  officers  as  he 
considered  unfriendly  to  himself,  many  of  whom  happened  to 
be  the  best  officers  in  the  service.  This  occasioned  discon- 
tent among  the  troops,  which  was  followed  by  alarming  deser- 
tions. Leaving  O'Higgins  at  the  head  of  the  army,  Carrera 
returned  to  Santiago.  The  Spanish  general  Osorio,  who  had 
succeded  Gainza,  advanced  as  far  as  Cachapual,  at  the  head 
of  4,000  men,  and  O'Higgim ,  being  unable  to  oppose  him, 
threw  himself  into  Rancagua,  seventy  miles  from  Santiago^ 


falSTORY   OF   THJE 

Siege  was  immediately  laid  to  the  town,  and  an  attack  made 
On  it,  which  lasted  thirty-six  hours.  During  the  action,  Car* 
Fera  approached  the  town  with  re-enforcements,  which  indu- 
ced Osorio,  to  recross  the  river  Cachapual,  leaving  two  hun- 
dred men  to  cover  his  retreat.  But  Carrera,  instead  of  en- 
tering the  town,  fell  back  on  Santiago,  when  Osorio  returned 
to  the  attack.  Seeing  no  prospect  of  relief,  and  having  lost 
two  thirds  of  his  men,  O'Higgins  resolved  to  evacuate  the 
place,  which  he  could  only  effect  by  opening  a  way  through 
the  lines  of  the  enemy.  He  was  retiring  towards  the  capital, 
but  on  learning  that  the  Carreras  were  making  no  preparations 
for  its  defence,  and  only  appeared  to  think  of  escaping,  he 
changed  his  plan,  and  retreated  in  a  different  direction.  Not- 
withstanding the  Carreras  had  fifteen  hundred  troops  under 
their  command,  they  made  no  attempt  to  oppose  the  royalists, 
or  defend  the  capital,  and  their  soldiers  committed  such  depre- 
dations on  the  inhabitants,  that,  becoming  exasperated,  they 
sent  deputies  to  Osorio,  inviting  him  to  enter  the  capital,  to 
re-establish  order,  and  afford  them  protection.  Great  conster- 
nation now  prevailed  throughout  Chile,  and  more  than  two 
thousand  of  its  inhabitants  fled  to  Mendoza,  in  the  province 
of  Cuyo,  one  of  the  United  Provinces  of  Rio  de  la  Plata, 
bordering  on  Chile.  J.  M.  Carrera  also  retired  to  that  place 
with  six  hundred  troops.  There  being  no  army  to  oppose  Oso- 
rio, he  entered  Santiago,  and  took  possession  of  Valparaiso, 
and  all  the  principal  towns,  without  opposition,  and  at  the  end 
of  October,  18 14,  the  Spanish  authority  was  completely  re-es- 
tablished throughout  Chile.  Here,  as  well  as  in  other  parts 
of  Spanish  America,  the  inhabitants  became  the  victims  of 
royal  vengeance  ;  arrests,  imprisonments,  punishments,  and 
banishments  followed,  and  filled  the  country  with  terror,  suf- 
fering and  horror.  More  than  one  hundred  patriots  were  ex- 
iled to  the  desert  island  of  Juan  Fernandes,  three  hundred  and 
eighty  miles  from  the  coast. 

For  more  than  two  years,  the  royalists  maintained  their 
power  in  Chile,  and  governed  with  the  greatest  rigour,  which 
produced  general  discontent  among  the  people,  who,  however, 
had  no  means  of  throwing  off  the  yoke. — At  length,  like  the 
Israelites  of  old,  they  found  a  deliverer,  who  was  raised  up  to 
rescue  them  from  the  hand  of  the  oppressor,  and  liberate  them 
from  bondage.  General  San  Martin,  governour  of  thfe  neigh 
bouring  province  of  Cuyo,  conceived  the  noble  design  of  eman- 
cipating Chile,  and  having  spent  a  year  in  levying  and  disci- 
plining troops  for  the  purpose,  his  army  commenced  its  march 
in  January,  1817  ;  and  by  the  most  incredible  exertions  and 
perseYerance,  crossed  the  lofty  and  rugged  Andes,  over  frozen 


HEVOLUTION    IN  CHILE, 

-summits,  along  precipitous  ledges,  and  through  narrow  and 
dangerous  defiles,  many  of  which  were  fortified  by  the  enemy. 
These  appalling  difficulties,  however,  were  overcome,  but  not 
without  the  loss  of  some  men,  and  several  thousand  mules 
And  horses.  The  army  consisted  of  two  divisions,  one  com- 
manded by  Don  E.  Soler,  and  the  other  by  O'Higgins,  and  oc- 
cupied Aconcagua,  Santarosa,  and  other  places  along  the 
road  which  the  royalists  had  abandoned,  and  concentrated 
their  forces  at  Chacabaco,  a  position  of  difficult  access,  and 
which  overlooks  the  plain  of  Santarosa,  through  which  the  on- 
ly road  to  Santiago  passes,  which  is  distant  only  forty  miles. 
Notwithstanding  the  strong  position  occupied  by  the  enemy, 
San  Martin  did  not  hesitate  to  attack  them  without  waiting  for 
the  arrival  of  part  of  his  troops,  and  his  artillery.  The  attack 
was  made  on  the  morning  of  the  12th  of  February,  in  the 
most  spirited  manner,  and  the  enemy  was  disloged  from  their 
position,  with  six  hundred  men  killed,  and  about  the  same 
number  made  prisoners.  The  remainder  of  the  royalists  fled, 
and  took  refuge  in  the  fortress  of  Talcahuano.  Their  com- 
mander, and  the  captain  general  of  Chile,  Marco,  was  after- 
wards taken  near  Valparaiso.  This  victory  terminated  the 
campaign,  and  emancipated  the  country.  San  Martin  proceed- 
ed to  Santiago,  where  a  meeting  of  the  principal  inhabitants 
was  convened,  which  elected  him  supreme  director  of  Chile, 
which  he  declined,  and  the  office  was  conferred  on  O'Hig- 
gins. All  of  Chile  was  again  under  the  government  of  the 
patriots,  except  a  few  fortresses  occupied  by  the  Spaniards. 
San  Martin  returned  to  Buenos  Ayres,  to  concert  meas- 
ures for  an  expedition  into  Peru,  for  the  liberation  of  that 
country,  leaving  O'Higgins  to  reduce  the  places  which  still 
held  out.  Before  this  was  effected,  the  viceroy  of  Lima  suc- 
ceeded in  throwing  fifteen  hundred  men  into  the  fortress  of 
Talcahuano,  which,  in  point  of  strength,  will  compare  with 
Gibraltar. 

Great  exertions  were  now  made,  to  fit  out  a  formidable  ex- 
pedition against  Peru,  both  by  Buenos  Ayres  and  Chile. 
The  new  levies  made  in  Chile,  increased  the  liberating  army 
to  nearly  double  its  number  ;  but  time  was  required  to  disci- 
pline these  raw  troops.  The  want  of  transports  was  the  prin- 
cipal cause  which  delayed  the  expedition. — Aware  of  these 
preparations,  and  alarmed  at  the  consequences  of  a  victorious 
army  in  Peru,  knowing*  the  disposition  of  the  people  to  revolt, 
the  viceroy  resolved  to  decide  the  fate  of  Peru  in  Chile,  and 
by  very  great  exertions,  collected  and  embarked  5,000  men, 
commanded  by  Osorio,  which  landed  at  Talcahuano.  They 
immediately  marched  for  the  capital,  intending  to  overtake 


244  HISTORY   OF   THE 

and  engage  O'Higgins  before  he  could  unite  with  San  Mar* 
tin.  Being  re-enforced  by  the  garrison,  and  the  inhabitants*, 
Osorio  had  nearly  8,000  men,  with  which  he  advanced  rapid- 
ly through  the  country  ;  but  before  he  passed  the  Maule,  the 
different  divisions  of  the  patriot  forces  had  formed  a  junction, 
and  San  Martin  appealing  to  the  capital,  its  inhabitants  in  the 
niost  patriotic  manner,  voluntarily  stripped  themselves  of 
plate,  and  all  utensils  of  silver,  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  ar- 
my. The  moment  the  troops  were  in  a  condition  to  take  the 
field,  San  Martin  marched  to  meet  the  enemy,  and  coming  up 
With  them,  a  skirmishing  commenced,  and  was  kept  up  for 
several  days.  On  the  19th  of  March,  1818,  a  more  serious 
affair  took  place.  O'Higgins,  with  the  advance  of  the  army, 
having  attacked  a  part  of  the  Spanish  force,  drove  them  back 
With  precipitation,  and  pursued  them  into  the  streets  of  Talca. 
This  forced  back  the  whole  of  the  Spanish  army,  and  discov* 
cred  to  Osorio,  that  he  had  estimated  too  lightly  the  prowess 
of  the  patriot  army  and  its  general.  He  apprehended  that 
San  Martin  would  attack  him  in  the  morning,  with  all  his  force, 
and  dreading  the  consequences,  he  resolved  to  select  two 
thousand  of  his  best  troops,  and  try  to  seal  a  victory,  by  a  night 
attack.  Accordingly,  about  nine  o'clock  in  the  evening,  when 
the  right  wing  of  the  liberating  army  had  taken  its  position  foi- 
the  night,  and  the  left  was  in  motion,  the  enemy  rushed  upon 
them  in  the  most  furious  manner.  The  surprise  and  impet- 
tiosity  of  the  attack  threw  the  artillery  into  confusion,  which 
Communicated  to  the  troops  on  their  march,  who,  after  a 
slight  resistance,  broke  and  dispersed,  and  all  the  efforts  of 
their  officers  to  rally  them,  were  ineffectual.  The  right  of 
the  army  continued  the  contest  for  some  time,  and  retired  in 
good  order.  One  half  of  the  army  was  dispersed,  and  near- 
ly all  its  baggage  and  artillery  were  lost.  With  what  remained, 
San  Martin  retired  to  the  defile  of  Angulemu,  on  the  route  to 
Santiago,  where  he  left  the  remains  of  his  troops,  and  pro- 
ceeded with  the  director  to  the  capital,  to  rouse  the  inhabit- 
ants, and  procure  means  for  increasing  and  re-organizing  his 
army.  Animating  proclamations  were  circulated  through  the 
country,  by  San  Martin  and  the  director,  and  by  the  most  in- 
credible exertions,  the  army,  after  marching  two  hundred  and 
forty  miles,  in  a  few  days  presented  a  formidable  front  on  the 
plains  of  Maypu. 

Following  up  his  advantage,  Osorio  marched  with  great  ce- 
lerity, and  in  twelve  days  reached  the  banks  of  the  Maypu. 
After  some  skirmishing  on  the  3d  and  ,4th  of  April,  on 
the  5th,  the  royalists  crossed  the  river,  and  the  two  armies 
came  in  sight  of  each  other.  Considerable  maneuvering 


REVOLUTION    IN    CHILE.  24/> 

look  place,  each  commander  endeavouring  to  get  the  advan- 
tage of  his  opponent.  San  Martin  continued  riding  along  the 
lines,  and  addressed  each  separate  corps,  infusing  his  own  an- 
imation, confidence  and  spirit,  into  them  ;  whilst  patriotic 
songs  resounded  through  the  army,  by  which  means  the  en- 
thusiasm of  the  troops  was  raised  to  the  highest  pitch.  San 
Martin  expected  that  Osorio  would  attack  him,  but  peceiving 
that  the  enemy  did  not  intend  to  make  an  attack  that  day,  and 
seeing  the  ardour  with  which  his  army  was  inspired,  he  gave 
orders  to  prepare  for  action.  The  right,  composed  of  infant- 
ry, was  commanded  by  general  Balcarce,  and  colonel  Las 
Heras,  and  the  infantry  on  the  left  was  under  colonel  Alvarado ; 
a  part  of  the  artillery  and  cavalry  was  posted  on  each  wing, 
and  there  was  a  strong  reserve  in  the  rear,  under  colonel 
Quintana.  The  army  thus  formed,  advanced  towards  the 
enemy,  who  received  them  with  a  tremendous  fire  from  his 
infantry  and  his  artillery,  posted  on  a  small  eminence.  This 
did  not  stop  the  progress'of  the  patriot  army ;  the  enemy's  cav- 
alry made  a  charge  upon  them,  who  were  met  and  driven  back 
under  their  guns,  by  the  cavalry  of  the  patriots.  The  action 
now  became  general  along  the  whole  line,  and  soon  the  fire 
was  tremendous  and  destructive.  Each  party  displayed  equa) 
obstinacy  ;  at  length  the  line  of  the  Independents  began  to 
vacillate,  when  the  reserve  was  ordered  up,  and  the  whole 
returned  to  the  charge  with  an  impetus  irresistible  and  over 
whelming.  So  obstinate,  however,  was  the  resistance  of  the 
enemy,  that  they  were  literally  pushed  from  the  ground  with 
the  bayonets ;  and  the  regiment  of  Burgos,  twelve  hundred 
strong,  and  the  best  troops  of  Spain  was  not  broken  until  re- 
peated  charges  were  made  on  it,  led  by  San  Martin  in  person, 
The  contest  was  long  and  obstinate,  continuing  from  noon  un- 
til six  in  the  evening  ;  never  was  a  field  more  sharply  con- 
tested, or  a  victory  more  decisive  and  complete.  The  entire 
Spanish  army  was  destroyed  ;  its  chief,  with  a  few  horsemen, 
alone  escaped,  when  they  saw  that  the  day  was  lost.  The 
whole  of  the  enemy's  baggage,  military  chests,  artillery,  and 
every  thing  belonging  to  the  army,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
victors.  Two  thousand  of  the  enemy  covered  the  field  of 
battle,  and  two  hundred  officers,  and  three  thousarid  rank  and 
file  were  made  prisoners.  The  patriots  lost  one  thousand 
killed  and  wounded. 

The  capital,  which,  since  the  defeat  of  the  army,  had  been 
covered  with  gloom,  ^vas  now  filled  with  joy  and  rejoicing  ; 
the  sublime  effusions  of  popular  and  patriotic  feeling,  which 
were  exhibited,  cannot  be  described,  nor  even  conceived  by 
those  who  have  never  witnessed  a  similar  scene.  The  people 

VOL.  II.  39 


246  HISTORY    OP    THE 

in  transports  of  joy  universally  exclaimed,  "  at  last  the  plain* 
of  Maypu  have  sealed  our  Independence,"  while  San  Martin 
was  hailed  as  the  saviour  of  the  country,  and  the  master-spirit 
of  the  revolution. 

Great  exertions  were  now  renewed  to  prepare  an  expedi- 
tion to  Peru  ;  to  collect  a  well  disciplined  army,  and  a  suffi- 
cient naval  force  and  transports  for  the  expedition.  The  lat- 
ter was  attended  with  the  most  difficulty,  and  was  the  princi- 
pal cause  of  delay.  Lord  Cochrane  arrived  in  Chile,  in  No- 
vember, 1818,  and  was  immediately  appointed  commander  in 
chief  of  the  Chilean  squadron.  By  great  exertions,  the  fleet 
was  rendered  so  efficient,  under  the  wonderful  genius  of  Lord 
Cochrane,  that  it  drove  the  Spanish  from  the  Pacific,  and  in 
September,  1818,  attacked  their  shipping  and  batteries  at 
Callao.  Lord  Cochrane  proceeded  from  thence  to  Guaya- 
quil, where  he  captured  a  number  of  valuable  Spanish  ships 
laden  with  timber  ;  and  from  hence  he  sailed  to  Talcahuano, 
on  the  frontier  of  Chile,  where  he  took  on  board  a  detach- 
ment of  troops,  and  proceeded  for  Valdivia,  a  town  in  the 
south,  in  the  possession  of  the  Spaniards,  and  strongly  forti- 
fied. This  town  and  district  he  captured  on  the  2d  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1820,  by  a  bold  and  skilful  combination  of  operations. 
The  squadron  returned  to  Valparaiso,  where,  on  the  18th  of 
August,  1820,  the  troops  were  embarked,  and  the  expedition 
sailed  for  the  liberation  of  Peru.  An  account  of  its  proceed- 
ings and  success  has  been  given  in  the  history  of  the  revolu- 
tion in  Peru. 

For  three  years,  the  southern  frontier  of  Chile  was  devasta- 
ted by  the  hostilities  of  the  Araucanian  Indians,  headed  by 
Benavides,  an  outlaw  and  pirate.  Benavides  was  a  native  of 
Quirihue,  in  the  province  of  Conception,  and  served  as  a  pri- 
vate in  the  patriot  army,  during  the  first  revolution.  He  be- 
came a  sergeant  of  grenadiers,  and  finally  deserted  to  the  Span- 
iards, at  Membrilla,  and  subsequently  at  the  action  at  that 
place,  was  made  a  prisoner ;  but  when  conducting  him  to  the 
court  martial  to  be  tried,  he  made  his  escape,  and  continued 
in  the  service  of  the  Spaniards  until  again  taken  prisoner,  on 
the  plains  of  Maypu.  He  was  condemned  to  be  shot  as  a  de- 
serter, and  was  supposed  to  have  been  killed  ;  but  being  only 
dreadfully  wounded,  he  feigned  to  be  dead,  and  was  carried 
off,  and  left  with  the  dead  bodies  of  others,  shot  at  the  same 
time,  and  in  the  night  crawled  off  to  a  cottage,  where,  being 
taken  care  of,  he  recovered.  Afterwards  he  offered  his  servi- 
ces to  San  Martin  to  dissuade  the  Indians  on  the  southern 
bank  of  Biobio,  from  the  predatory  war  in  which  the  Spaniards 
wished  to  engage  them.  His  services  were  accepted,  and  he 


REVOLUTION    IN    CHILE.  247 


was  furnished  with  a  commission  and  documents.  But  instead 
of  attempting  to  persuade  the  Indians  to  remain  peaceable,  he 
went  to  Nicimiento,  and  offered  to  Sanchez,  the  Spanish  com- 
mander  in  that  quarter,  to  prosecute  the  war  on  the  southern 
frontier  of  Chile,  if  he  would  confer  on  him  the  command. 
Sanchez  accordingly  retired  to  Valdivia,  and  left  Benavides  as 
commander  in  chief  on  the  whole  of  the  southern  frontier. 
This  savage  now  commenced  a  war  of  desolation  and  blood, 
which  perhaps  has  never  been  surpassed.  He  laid  waste 
every  thing  before  him  with  fire  and  sword  ;  he  put  all  his 
prisoners  to  death,  cut  the  throat  of  an  officer  bearing  a  flag 
of  truce ;  he  compelled  the  peasants  to  follow  him  on  pain  of 
death,  and  even  women  and  children  were  often  murdered  to 
prevent  their  giving  information  of  the  route  he  had  pursued, 
or  the  mountain  in  which  his  party  had  secreted  themselves. 
His  orders  to  the  leaders  of  his  guerrillas  were  written  in 
blood,  and  executed  with  an  exactness  which  shew  the  terror 
with  which  he  had  inspired  the  vile  instruments  of  his  cruel- 
ties and  murders. 

The  armies  of  the  republic  were  employed  in  Peru  ;  but  the 
governor  of  the  province  of  Conception,  defended  the  frontier 
as  well  as  he  could,  against  so  ferocious  an  enemy.  On  the 
26th  of  September,  1 820,  he  was  attacked  on  the  river  Laja 
by  three  hundred  regulars,  and  some  militia  under  general  Al- 
cazar, and  was  very  hard  pressed.  At  night  Benavides  sent  a 
messenger,  offering  to  spare  the  lives  of  all  who  would  surren- 
der themselves  up  unarmed.  His  men  being  overcome  with 
fatigue,  and  his  ammunition  nearly  exhausted,  Alcazar  was 
obliged  to  accept  these  terms  and  capitulated.  His  officers 
were  all  immediately  shot,  and  himself  delivered  over  to  the 
Indians. 

At  length  this  monster  was  defeated  on  the  27th  of  Novem- 
ber, 1820;  but  still  continued  formidable.  The  success  of 
his  predatory  incursions,  and  the  authority  he  had  acquired 
over  the  Araucanians,  led  him  to  fancy  himself  a  powerful 
monarch,  and  to  increase  his  power  for  war,  he  attempted  to 
establish  a  navy.  The  town  of  Arauco,  the  capital  of  the 
country  of  the  Araucanian  Indians  is  directly  opposite  the 
island  of  St.  Maria,  where  ships  which  have  doubled  Cape 
Horn,  stop  for  refreshments,  which  gave  him  opportunities  for 
surprising  and  capturing  vessels.  The  first  he  captured  was 
the  ship  Hero,  from  the  United  States,  and  the  second,  the 
American  brig  Herselia,  which  anchored  in  a  small  bay  of  the 
island  of  St.  Maria,  opposite  to  Arauco.  The  captain  and 
crew  of  the  Herselia  were  made  prisoners,  pillaged  of  every 
thing  they  had,  and  compelled  to  engage  in  the  service  of  Pen- 


2  HISTORY    OF    THE 

avides.  He  despatched  one  of  his  vessels  to  the  island  of  Chi* 
loe,  and  obtained  from  the  Spanish  authorities  nine  pieces  of 
cannon,  a  quantity  of  ammunition,  eleven  Spanish  officers,  am 
twenty  soldiers.  The  royal  chiefs  did  not  hesitate  to  emplo 
Such  a  savage  monster  in  making  war  on  the  patriots.  After 
this,  Benavides  captured  the  English  whale  ship  Perseverance, 
and  the  American  brig  Ocean,  having  on  board  several  thou- 
gand  stan  ds  of  arms.  He  put  the  captain  of  the  Perseverance 
to  death,  for  attempting  to  escape,  and  a  seaman  who  desert- 
ed, he  cut  in  pieces,  and  exhibited  the  mangled  body  as  a 
warning  to  others.  He  compelled  the  crews  of  these  vessels 
to  serve  with  his  troops. 

In  the  month  of  October,  1821,  a  Chilean  expedition  pro- 
ceeded against  Arauco,  and  their  troops  having  defeated  the 
Araucanians,  commanded  by  one  .of  Benavides'  officers,  the 
Indians  set  fire  to  the  town  and  shipping,  and  fled  to  the  woods* 
leaving  every  thing  to  be  consumed  which  they  could  not  car- 
ry off.  The  affairs  of  Benavides  had  now  become  desperate  ; 
and  in  December  he  offered  to  surrender  himself  and  all  his 
partizans  to  the  Intendant  of  Conception  ;  but  soon  after  he 
embarked  in  a  launch,  and  attempted  to  escape  to  one  of  the 
southern  ports  of  Peru,  but  having  sent  a  soldier  to  swim 
ashore,  to  look  for  water,  the  soldier  betrayed  him,  and  he  was 
arrested  on  the  beach.  He  was  tried,  condemned,  and  exe* 
cuted,  on  the  23d  of  February,  1822. 

No  important  events  occurred  in  Chile  during  the  year  1822, 
as  their  army  and  navy  were  employed  in  Peru  ;  the  Spanish 
authority  was  entirely  overthrown  in  Chile  ;  the  war  with  the 
Araucanian  Indians  was  at  an  end,  and  the  Chilean  squadron- 
was  triumphant  on  the  ocean.  On  the  1 8th  of  November,  the 
town  of  Valparaiso  was  visited  by  one  of  those  dreadful  con- 
rulsions  of  nature,  to  which  this  region  is  exposed.  A  consid- 
erable portion  of  the  town  was  laid  in  ruins  by  a  tremendous 
earthquake  ;  few  houses  were  left  standing,  which  were  ten- 
antable  ;  more  than  three  hundred  bodies  were  found  among 
the  ruins.  In  January,  1823,  Lord  Cochrane  retired  from  the 
command  of  the  Chilean  navy,  and  on  the  10th  of  the  month, 
addressed  a  letter  to  the  officers  belonging  thereto,  in  which 
he  says,  that  by  their  united  exertions,  the  naval  power  of  the 
enemy  in  those  seas  had  been  annihilated,  and  that  the  com- 
merce of  the  Pacific  was  every  where  carried  on  under  the 
protection  of  the  Independent  flag. 

O'Higgins  had  hitherto  continued  at  the  head  of  the  gov- 
ernment, as  supreme  director,  but  had  become  unpopular,  and 
an  opposition  to  his  administration  extensively  prevailed. — 
Among  other  things,  the  director  was  charged  with  having  en* 


REVOLUTION    IN 

gaged  in  disgraceful  speculations.  General  Frejrre,  who  was 
at  the  head  of  the  principal  part  of  the  military  force,  was 
among  the  opponents  of  the  director,  and  every  thing  threat- 
ened a  revolution  in  the  government.  O'Higgins  was  sensible 
of  the  gathering  storm  which  impended  over  him,  and  to 
avoid  its  effects,  or  abate  its  violence,  on  the  28th  of  January, 
1823,  he  called  together  the  officers  of  the  government  and 
authorities  of  the  capital,  to  deliberate  on  the  state  of  affairs, 
and  determine  on  the  means  of  preserving  the  public  tranquil- 
lity. The  result  was,  that  the  next  day  the  director  issued  a 
decree,  containing  the  abdication  of  his  authority,  and  resign- 
ing it  to  a  junta  to  be  exercised  provisionally,  until  the  nation- 
al representatives  could  be  assembled.  The  junta  were  Ey- 
zaguirre,  Infante,  and  Errazuris.  This  decree  was  read  to 
the  people,  and  O'Higgins  himself  proclaimed  the  election  of 
the  new  government.  He  untied  the  ribbon,  the  badge  of  his 
office,  and  put  into  the  hands  of  the  junta,  who  then  took  the 
oath  of  their  new  office.  The  new  government  appointed  D. 
A.  Vial,  minister  of  Finance  and  war,  and  D.  M.  Egana,  min- 
ister of  state  and  marine.  But,  notwithstanding  the  resigna- 
tion of  the  director,  general  Freyre  who  arrived  at  Valpa- 
raiso not  long  after,  at  the  head  of  a  considerable  army,  order- 
ed him  arrested  and  imprisoned.  A  revolution  in  the  govern- 
ment took  place  ;  the  administrative  junta  decreed  by  O'Hig- 
gins was  overthrown,  and  a  provisional  government  estab- 
lished ;  general  Freyre  was  appointed  director.  The  last  of 
March,  1823,  a  statute  was  published,  providing  for  the  as- 
sembling of  a  supreme  congress,  to  frame  a  constitution,  and 
until  one  was  formed  and  adopted,  the  constitution  of  1818, 
except  such  provisions  as  were  abrogated  or  altered  by  this 
act,  was  to  form  the  basis  of  the  government.  The  act  pro- 
vided that  the  provisional  government  within  thirty  days  from 
its  establishment,  should  issue  warrants  for  the  election  of  rep- 
resentatives to  congress,  which  should  meet  within  two  months 
thereafter  ;  it  also  fixed  the  basis  of  population  of  the  districts, 
and  the  ratio  of  representation,  which  was  one  deputy  to 
15,000  inhabitants. 

The  expedition  under  San  Martin,  against  Peru,  was  com- 
pletely successful ; .  the  country  was  liberated  from  the  au- 
thority of  Spain,  and  a  government  established,  and  San  Mar- 
tin returned  to  Chile,  in  October,  1822.  But  almost  immedi- 
ately after  he  left  Peru,  the  new  government  was  involved  in 
dissentions,  which  threatened  the  destruction  of  all  the  fruits 
of  the  glorious  expedition,  from  Chile,  directed  by  the  illustri- 
ous San  Martin.  In  June  following,  the  Spanish  general,  Cam 
terac,  re-entered  Lima,  and  the  patriots  took  refuge  in  Gallae 

39* 


250  HISTORY   OP   THE 

the  revolution  in  Peru,  being  thus  speedily  terminated,  and 
the  royal  authority  re-established.  These  disastrous  events  in 
Peru,  induced  the  Liberator,  Bolivar,  who  had  recently  brought 
the  war  to  a  conclusion  in  the  southern  provinces  of  Colombia* 
to  resolve  on  proceeding  to  Peru  with  a  considerable  force. 
The  government  of  Chile,  offered  again  to  send  an  auxiliary 
force,  for  the  prosecution  of  the  war  in  Peru.  Accordingly, 
their  navy,  with  some  troops,  were  placed  under  the  command 
of  Bolivar.  After  the  annihilation  of  the  royal  army,  and  the 
emancipation  of  Peru,  in  1824,  a  part  of  the  Chilean  fleet  was 
generously  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Peruvian  government, 
for  the  investment  of  Callao,  which  place  the  royalists  still 
possess. 

Notwithstanding  all  the  disorders  and  civil  wars,  which  have 
prevailed  in  Chile,  it  is  entitled  to  the  honour  not  only  of 
maintaining  its  own  independence,  but  of  having  fitted  out. 
two  expeditions,  and  afforded  important  assistance  for  the 
emancipation  of  Peru,  and  for  the  support  of  the  revolution 
in  that  country.  For  the  last  two  years  intelligence  from  Chi- 
le, has  been  scanty  and  obscure  ;  some  progress  seems  to  have 
been  made,  in  maturing  a  system  of  government,  and  in  con- 
solidating the  republic.  The  new  government  has  adopted 
some  salutary  laws,  and  among  others,  an  act,  in  June,  18235 
for  the  entire  abolition  of  slavery.  It  declares  all  persons 
born  in  the  territories  of  the  republic,  all  who^tread  the  soil  of 
Chile,  and  all  who  have  been  slaves,  to  be  free  from  the  pass- 
ing of  the  act,  and  entitled  to  the  rights  of  citizens. 

The  Spanish  power  is  annihilated  in  Chile,  and  no  important 
military  events  have  taken  place  since  the  overthrow  of 
O'Higgins'  administration.  Freyre,  the  director,  fitted  out  an 
expedition  against  the  island  of  Chiloe,  the  only  place  in  the 
possession  of  the  royalists,  in  1824,  which  was  unsuccessful. 
The  naval  force  of  Chile  has  been  principally  employed  in  the 
siege  of  Callao,  and  has  performed  some  heroic  exploits  ;  fifty 
men  in  boats  entered  the  harbour,  and  burnt  and  destroyed 
six  vessels,  including  the  Spanish  frigate  Venganza  ;  and  at 
another  time  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  men,  in  boats, .at- 
tacked five  of  the  enemy's  vessels  in  the  harbour,  one  of  twen- 
ty guns,  and  captured  and  carried  off  three  of  them,  and  burnt 
the  other  two.  The  Chilean  squadron  stilt  continues  the 
blockade  of  Callao. 

The  dissentions  and  passions  of  the  revolution  appear  to 
have  subsided  in  Chile,  and  the  public  sensibility  to  be  tran- 
quillized. During  the  year  1825,  a  congress  has  been  in  ses- 
sion, which  framed  a  constitution  of  government,  that  has  gone 
into  operation  without  occasioning  civil 'dissentionS  or  open  op- 


REVOLUTION"   Itt   CJKILH7.  251 

position.  We  have  not  seen  this  instrument,  but  it  is  to  b£ 
presumed  that  its  form  and  fundamental  principles  are  sim- 
ilar to  those  of  the  other  southern  republics.  General  Freyrfe 
is  still  at  the  head  of  the  government,  in  which  no  revolution 
has  taken  place  since  the  spring  of  1823.  He  bears  the  title 
of  supreme  director.  The  Spaniards  still  possess  the  island 
of  Chiloe,  and  in  November,  1825,  a  squadron,  consisting  of 
seven  vessels  of  war,  and  a  number  of  transports,  with  3,509 
troops  on  board,  under  the  command  of  the  director  himself, 
sailed  from  Valparaiso  destined  against  the  Spanish  establish- 
ment at  Chiloe.  The  result  of  this  expedition  is  not  known. 
Although  Chile  has  suffered  severely  from  the  revolution,  she 
is  less  burdene'H  with  debt  than  some  of  the  other  republics. 
The  amount  she  has  borrowed  in  England  is  $4,6g6,000.  The 
immense  product  of  her  mines,  and  an  unrestricted  commerce, 
will  soon  enable  the  republic  to  discharge  its  foreign  debts. 

Chile  maintains  friendly  relations  with  the  other  independ- 
ent states  in  the  south,  and  its  independence  has  been  ac- 
knowledged by  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain.  Mr.  Al- 
len has  resided  there  for  several  years  as  minister  for  the  Uni- 
ted States,  and  it  is  supposed  that  a  treaty  has  been  concluded 
between  the  Chilean  government  aad  that  of  the  United  States, 
although  it  has  not  yet  transpired.  On  the  21st  day  of  Octo- 
ber, 1822,  a  treaty  was  concluded  between  Chile  and  Colom- 
bia, by  which  the  two  republics  form  a  perpetual  union,  league 
and  confederacy,  guarantee  each  other's  independence,  and 
bind  themselves  not  to  enter  in  any  treaty  with  Spain  to  the 
prejudice  of  their  independence,  or  yield  any  tribute  or  indem- 
nity to  Spain  for  the  loss  of  her  supremacy.  This  treaty  also 
provided  for  the  appointment  by  the  contracting  parties  of 
plenipotentiaries  to  a  general  congress  to  be  held  at  Panama, 
or  some  other  central  place.  The  object  of  this  congress  is 
stated  to  be  "  to  cement,  in  the  most  solid  and  stable  manner, 
the  relations  which  ought  to  exist  between  the  states  of  the 
confederacy,  to  serve  as  a  council  in  the  great  conflicts,  as  a 
rallying  point  in  common  dangers,  as  the  faithful  interpreter 
of  public  treaties  when  difficulties  occur,  and  as  an  umpire  or 
conciliator  in  their  disputes  and  differences."  This  treaty  was 
ratified  by  Colombia  on  the  12th  of  July,  1823.  As  the  re- 
public of  Colombia  has  taken  the  lead  in  the  measures  for 
forming  a  general  confederacy  of  the  southern  republics,  an 
account  of  them  would  have  been  more  properly  given  in  the 
history  of  that  republic ;  but  having  been  unintentionally  omit- 
ted, the  details  relating  to  this  subject  are  subjoined  here.. 
Colombia  concluded  a  treaty  with  Peru  similar  to  that  with 
Chile  on  the  6th  day  of  Jftly,  1822  ;  and  a  similar  treaty  \fsts 


CONGfeESS    AT    PANAMA. 

entered  into  between  Colombia  and  Mexico  in  1823.  A  treat) 
of  alliance  and  confederacy  was  concluded  between  the  Co* 
Jombian  republic  and  Central  America  on  the  15th  day  of 
March,  1825,  and  ratified  by  the  former  on  the  12th  of  April 
following.  These  treaties  all  contain  substantially  the  same 
provisions  and  stipulations.  The  United  Provinces  have  hith- 
erto declined  acceding  to  the  proposed  confederacy,  and  have 
entered  into  no  treaty  on  the  subject. 

The  sublime  project  of  a  confederacy  of  all  the  new  repub- 
lics, which  have  been  established  in  America,  formerly  Span- 
ish, owes  its  origin  to  Bolivar,  although  it  may  have  been  con- 
ceived by  others  ;  yet  he  was  the  first  who  attempted  to  carry 
the  plan  into  execution,  and  it  is  not  probable  that  any  thing- 
short  of  his  transcendant  influence  could  have  accomplished 
so  important  an  object.  No  time  was  named  in  any  of  the 
treaties  for  the  meeting  of  the  congress,  and  no  further  ad- 
vancement made  in  the  business,  until  December,  1824,  when 
Bolivar,  as  president  of  Peru,  sent  a  circular  to  all  the  repub- 
lics, proposing  the  immediate  appointment  of  delegates  to  as- 
semble at  Panama,  by  the  states  which  had  or  should  accede 
to  the  confederacy.  Mexico  and  Colombia  promptly  concur- 
red in  the  measure,  and  together  with  Peru,  immediately  ap- 
pointed delegates  to  attend  the  convention.  The  executive 
of  Colombia,  of  Mexico,  and  of  Guatamala,  invited  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States,  if  not  to  become  a  party  to  the 
Confederacy,  to  send  plenipotentiaries  to  the  congress,  and 
take  a  part  in  its  deliberations.  The  invitation  was  accepted 
by  the  president,  without  submitting  it  to  congress,  and  minis- 
ters haVe  been  appointed  to  represent  the  "  first  American  na- 
tion,"* in  the  first  grand  council  of  nations,  held  in  the  new 
world.  The  delegates  of  Colombia  and  Peru  were  authori- 
sed, on  their  arriving  at  Panama,  to  open  a  correspondence 
with  the  other  republics,  to  inform  them  that  the  conferences 
were  commenced,  and  renew  their  invitation  to  send  delegates. 
It  was  provided,  that  when  delegates  assembled  from  Colom- 
bia, Mexico,  Pern,  and  Guatamala,  or  any  three  of  these 
states,  they  were  to  instal  the  confederate  congress,  and  com- 
mence their  deliberations.  Buenos  Ayres  and  Chile  have  not 
yet  appointed  delegates,  owing,  it  is  supposed,  to  some  local 
or  temporary  obstacles.! 

The  congress  of  Panama  is  designed  primarily  to  establish  a 
permanent  confederacy  and  solemn  league  of  all  the  new  re- 

*  This  language  has  been  applied  to  the  United  States  by  some  of 
the  republics  of  the  south. 

f  North  American  Review  for  January  1.826-. 


CONGRESS    AT    PANAMA.  253 

publics,  for  their  general  security,  by  strengthening  the  bonds 
tif  union  between  them,  providing  against  foreign  invasion,  at 
domestic  commotion,  perfecting  and  consolidating  their  infant 
institutions,  and  fixing  on  a  just  and  durable  basis  their  com- 
mercial and  political  relations.  The  object  of  this  alliance  of 
nations  is  directly  the  converse  of  that  called  the  "  Holy  Alii* 
ance  ;"  it  is  to  defend  the  rights  of  the  people  and  free  insti* 
tutions  in  the  states  which  are  parties  to  it.  Some  questious 
of  a  temporary  nature,  but  nevertheless  of  great  moment,  arc 
expected  to  come  before  the  congress,  of  which  the  most  im- 
portant are  the  expediency  of  combining  the  forces  of  the  con* 
federate  republics,  for  the  liberation  of  the  islands  of  Cuba  and 
Porto  Rico  from  the  yoke  of  Spain  ;  the  propriety  of  carrying 
on  the  war  by  sea  on  the  coast  of  Spain,  the  Phillipine  and 
Canary  islands,  and  to  determine  on  what  footing  shall  be 
placed  those  portions  of  the  western  hemisphere  which  may 
hereafter  become  independent.*  This  last  question  refers  to 
the  Spanish  islands  in  the  American  seas,  and  probably  also 
to  Brazil.  Mexico  and  Colombia  have  a  considerable  naval 
force  now  at  Carthagena,  the  employment  of  which  may  await 
the  decision  of  the  confederate  congress. 

The  nomination  of  ministers  to  the  congress,  by  the  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  met  with  a  very  powerful  opposition 
in  the  senate  ;  and  it  is  likely  to  divide  public  opinion  in  the 
union.  The  expediency  of  the  measure  is  believed  to  be 
very  questionable,  and  it  is  feared  that  from  the  discussion  and 
opposition  which  it  is  likely  to  excite,  it  may  tend  to  disturb 
rather  than  to  advance  the  friendly  relations  between  the  Uni- 
ted States  and  the  republics  of  the  South.  If  we  do  not  be* 
come  a  party  to  the  confederacy,  it  is  difficult  to  perceive 
what  use  our  plenipotentiaries  can  be  at  the  congress,  unless 
it  is  to  contribute  their  friendly  counsels  in  the  concerns  of  our 
neighbouring  republics,  and  to  express  to  their  representatives 
the  deep  interest  we  feel  in  their  prosperity.  Perhaps  either 
of  these  objects  could  have  been  obtained  as  satisfactorily  by 
our  own  resident  ministers  at  the  governments  of  the  respec* 
tive  republics,  which  would  have  avoided  all  the  objections 
that  attend  the  sending  of  delegates  to  the  congress.  The 
wise  maxim  of  Washington  and  Jefferson  is  as  immutable  as 
any  moral  principle,  and  is  not  effected  by  any  change  in  the 
circumstances  of  other  nations.  However  deep  interest  we 
may  feel  in  the  prosperity  of  the  republics  which  have  sudden?- 
ly  sprung  into  existence  on  the  same  continent,  our  policy  w>]* 
remain  the  same  ;  to  maintain  "  peace  and  honest  friends1 

*  The  Colombian  Gazette  of  27th  February,  1825. 


254  C&NGRESS    AT    PANAMA. 

with  all  nations,  and  entangling  alliances  with  none.?!  This- 
project  of  a  general  confederacy  is  a  wise  measure  for  the 
southern  republics  ;  it  is  highly  honourable  to  Colombia,  who 
has  taken  the  lead  in  it,  and  whose  only  ambition  seems  to  be 
to  do  most  for  the  common  cause,  to  employ  her  power  and  re- 
sources for  the  liberation  of  all  America,  and  for  the  guarantee 
of  the  independence  and  freedom  of  the  southern  republics. 


KND  OF  THE  SECOND  VOLUME. 


FOR  THE  INSTRUCTION  OP  YOUTH, 

Sale  by  the  principal  booksellers  in  the  United 
States. 

History  of  the  United  States  of  America,  for  Schools,  by 
Rev.  C.  A.  Goodrich,  with  ten  engravings. 

O3  This  work  is  written  in  a  plain,  easy  and  elegant  style — its  ar- 
rangement of  the  subject  is  clear  and  natural,  and  it  is  rendered  ex- 
tremely interesting  to  youth,  by  the  introduction  of  lively  anecdotes 
and  narratives,  serving  at  the  same  time  to  illustrate  points  in  the  his* 
tory.  It  has  been  used  in  many  of  the  best  conducted  schools  and 
Seminaries  in  the  United  States,  and  the  testimonies  of  intelligent 
teachers  to  its  value  are  abundant. 

The  following  notice  of  the  work,  extracted  from  Rev.  Mr.  EmeiS 
son's  prospectus  of  the  Female  Seminary  at  Wethersfield,  puts  it  be- 
yond a  doubt  that  this  work  is  decidedly  the  best  history  of  the  Uni- 
ted States  for  schools. 

"By  using  it  the  last  season,  the  high  opinion,  which  I  had  formed  of 
its  worth,  was  confirmed  and  raised.  The  author  is  uncommonly  hap- 
py in  his  arrangement  of  facts  ;  in  presenting  a  simple,  concise  and 
luminous  view  of  a  subject,  which  in  its  nature  is  peculiarly  complex 
and  intricate  ;  in  dividing  the  whole  time  into  eleven  periods ;  in  tra- 
cing causes  and  effects  ;  in  publishing  the  principal  and  subordinate 
parts  of  the  work  in  types  of  different  sizes  ;  and  in  presenting  re- 
flections for  the  benefit  of  the  youthful  mind.  The  style  is  easy,  neat, 
remarkably  perspicuous,  and  suited  to  improve  the  taste  of  the  learn- 
er. On  these  accounts,  this  little  compend  appears  peculiarly  adapted 
to  the  use  of  schools.  Soon  may  the  light  from  every  window  in  eve- 
ry school-house  in  our  land,  shine  upon  its  pages." 

Blair's  Outlines  of  Chronology,  Ancient  and  Moderti, 
being  an  introduction  to  the  study  of  History,  with  26 
engravings. 

O3  "  This  work  is  divided  into  twenty  periods,  each  characterised 
by  some  circumstance  or  event,  to  enable  the  learner  to  distinguish 
and  recollect  it.  Each  period  is  also  illustrated  by  a  cut,  with  a  view 
to  aid  the  memory  by  association. 

Having  made  a  general  division  of  the  subject  into  twenty  periods, 
then  each  period  is  taken  up,  and  an  account  given  of  the  principal 
events,  and  distinguished  characters  during  the  same.  Miscellaneous 
observations  are  then  added,  giving  a  general  view  of  the  state  of 
mankind,  the  progress  of  society,  of  knowledge  and  the  arts,  and  ed- 
ucation ;  the  state  of  manners,  morality,  religion,  &c.  during  each 
period. 

The  work  seems  to  us  to  be  constructed  on  philosophical  principles, 
and  to  be  written  with  enlightened  views  of  the  nature  and  capacity 
of  the  juvenile  mind.  We  think  it,  therefore,  an  interesting  acquisi- 
tion to  the  course  of  education  ;  and  as  it  is  stated  to  be  an  introduc^ 
tion  to  a  series  of  histories  formed  on  a  similar  plan,  we  wish  to  see*it 
take  the  place  in  our  schools  of  the  ill  managed  histories,  writlej*  feali 
a  century  ago." — Times. 


A  Grammar  of  Chemistry,  adapted  to  the  use  of  Schools 
and  private  Students,  by  familiar  illustrations  and 
easy  experiments,  with  numerous  engravings,  by  J.  L. 
Comstock,  M.  D. 

KT  This  work  is  adapted  to  the  use  of  Colleges  and  Academies,  and 
&eing  very  easy  and  simple  in  its  explanations,  and  requiring-  a  cheap 
apparatus*^  for  making-  experiments,  will  be  found  far  more  practical 
than  most  other  treatises.  The  American  Journal  of  Science,  says  it 
is  the  best  manual  in  use. 

An  Outline  of  Bible  History,  with  notes  and  observa- 
tions, adapted  to  the  minds  of  youth,  with  20  engra- 
vings, for  Sabbath  and  other  Schools,  by  Rev.  C,  A. 
Goodrich. 

O3  "  As  the  season  for  Sabbath  Schools  is  about  opening*,  we  men- 
tion as  worthy  the  attention  of  those  interested  in  them,  a  work  pub- 
lished last  year,  entitled  "  An  Outline  of  Bible  History,  &c.  by  Rev, 
Charles  A.  Goodrich."  It  has  been  found  on  trial  an  excellent  book 

for  Sabbath  Schools,  and  deserves  more  extended  use.     The  New 
Haven  Religious  Intelligencer  thus  speaks  of  it :" 

"  This  work  is  designed  for  Sabbath  and  other  Schools.  For  Sab- 
bath Schools,  it  appears  to  be  very  well  calculated,  being  as  we  should 
think,  admirably  adapted  both  for  the  instruction  and  entertainment 
of  the  elder  class  of  scholars.  .  The  Author  has  imbodied  in  the  work, 
observations,  illustrative  of  the  Chronology  of  the  Bible  :  of  ancient 
and  oriental  customs,  on  the  knowledge  of  which,  a  proper  under- 
standing of  many  parts  of  the  sacred  history  entirely  depends  ;  of  the 
Evidences  of  Revelation  ;  and  of  the  connexion  of  parts  of  the  histo- 
ry with  one  another.  The  spirit  of  the  whole  is  practical,  such  as  ev- 
ery teacher  ought  to  possess,  and  every  child  to  be  thoroughly  imbued 
with,  Every  person  ought  to  possess  the  information  contained  in 
this  book  ;  and  if  we  may  be  allowed  to  have  an  opinion  on  such  sub- 
jects, few  ministers  would  read  it  without  profit.  A  work  of  this 
nature,  has  hitherto  been  much  wanted  in  Sabbath  Schools  and  Bible 
Classes." 

"  In  the  Christian  Secretary  the  work  is  highly  recommended  as 
worthy  the  attention  of  heads  of  families,  and  such  as  have  the  man- 
agement of  Sunday  schools." — C^urant. 

***  Many  other  publications  have  given  similar  testimonials  of  the 
value  of  the  book. 

Outlines  of  Modern  Geography,  on  a  new  plan,  careful- 
ly adapted  to  the  use  of  Schools,  accompanied  by  an 
Atlas,  with  numerous  engravings  of  cities,  manners, 
customs,  curiosities,  &c.  by  Rev.  C.  A.  Goodrich. 

***  It  is  believed  confidently,  that  this  work,  which  will  appear  in 
May,  1826,  will  reduce  the  labour  of  teaching  and  learning  Geography, 
at  least  one  half. 

Outlines  of  Ecclesiastical   History,   on  an  interesting 
plan,  for  Schools. 
ECF  This  work  will  be  put  to  press  in  the  course  of  the  summer,  1 826. 

\*  Histories  of  Greece,  Rome,  and  England,  are  in 
progress. 


